During the third decade attention shifts to program models, while still examining instructional strategies. Here mainstreaming begins to get a lot of attention, as does the development of programs for special sub-populations heretofore not served, i.e. low vision children, preschool children, and children with additional disabilities.
As surely as Tore Gissler rang the bell of the old Tomteboda School for the Blind (he had brought the bell with him from Stockholm) in the National Palace of Conferences in Madrid, to call participants into session, he was also in an indirect way ringing in the changes that would take place in ICEVI within the next ten years. The old guard was retiring due to old age, and most of them would be gone within the next few years.
There were major changes occurring in the education of the blind at this time. Integration, or mainstreaming, was emerging as a legitimate alternative to schools for the blind, and this would lead in turn to the closing of some of the special schools, while others, as happened in Norway and Sweden, developed into resource centers. In some countries the traditional schools closed, with only schools for the multi-impaired remaining. In North American and European countries, which had had a large population of blind children due to retrolental fibroplasia (RLF) in the 1940s and 1950s (the condition was later called retinopathy of prematurity, or ROP), a major shift was being made to meet the needs of the multi-impaired, physically disabled and children stricken by rubella. This necessitated alterations in building facilities to educate and house a population that, for the most part, had not been educated before in schools for the blind. It also indicated changes in curriculum and training of staff to meet the needs of these students. The dilemma: how to educate this population?
Changes did not come about overnight but they were indeed taking place. New faces and new ideas on educating blind children would emerge. Two of the most notable new faces were those of Jeanne Kenmore and Wolfgang Stein, and over the next decade the two would greatly change the direction of ICEVI. Jeanne, an educator of the blind from the United States who was at that time employed by the AFOB in their office in Paris, became president of ICEVH, as it was known in 1972, and Wolfgang would follow in her footsteps when he took over the presidency in 1977. They held much in common, and over the coming years would share information and collaborate on several important projects.
"It was awesome to see and meet people from all over the world, many of whom I knew only by name." Natalie Barraga
"After twenty years of vital growth we believe that the time has come to review the machinery of the ICEBY with particular regard to strengthening its work between conferences. We believe that a sense of common purpose and ideology has developed to the point where ICEBY could now grow in greater depth." C.S. Colborne Brown
The first conference not held at a school for the blind took place in the National Palace of Conferences and Exhibitions in Madrid. This air-conditioned, modern and spacious hall with its many meeting rooms was a perfect accommodation for the 487 conference participants (Heisler 1977). They came from 58 countries throughout the world and constituted by far, the largest conference of educators of the blind to date – nearly double the Perkins conference of 1967. ONCE (Organizacion Nacional de Ciegos), a staunch supporter of ICEVI, sponsored the Madrid conference.
After reviewing the history of ICEBY, Tore Gissler announced the motto of the conference: "New Subjects, New Methods and New Pupils in the Education of the Visually Handicapped," which reflected the overall conference theme – Research.
In view of the current worldwide usage of the broader term "visually handicapped" to identify those with seriously impaired or partial vision, as well as the blind, the official name of the organization was changed from International Council of Educators of Blind Youth to International Council for Education of the Visually Handicapped (ICEVH) (Heisler 1977). The word "education" would replace "educators," since there was broad agreement that service to blind children is given by many professionals, including educators, psychologists, ophthalmologists, pediatricians, researchers, psychiatrists, social workers, specialists in equipment and materials, rehabilitation workers, family counselors, and others (Kenmore 1973).
The format for the conference returned to the plan adopted at the Oslo and Hanover conferences in which papers were presented and discussed in separate language groups. Again simultaneous translation was employed to carry the speeches and reports to the participants in English, French and Spanish. For the convenience of other language groups, free lines were allocated to certain conference members who were willing to serve as non-official interpreters for their language groups.
Among the discussion topics were: Reports from Research Centers, The New Math, Open Education Programs, Programmed Learning, Education for Life in the Community, Occupational Training and Placement, Embossed Diagrams, Maps and Sketches, Teaching Esperanto to the Blind and Partially Sighted, and a topic which over the coming years would be at the center of much debate – Boarderliners: Problems of the Visually Handicapped in the Area between the Blind and the Partially Sighted. There were often heated discussions at these sessions; one such was on the topic of Open Education, as mainstreaming or integrated education was sometimes called. Superintendents from a few residential schools openly expressed their opposition to the Open Education model. These discussions showed just how ICEVI was changing: it was becoming more a forum for new and controversial ideas.
There was extensive discussion on ways in which The Educator could be improved. Greater support would be needed by regional sub-editors, with more active participation by ICEVI members. The scope of The Educator could now be extended to provide an international forum of information on new materials, aids, programs and teaching strategies of interest to educators. The conference attendees determined that the Educator should not duplicate functions already covered by other journals and that, to increase circulation, a means should be found to make the journal available in other languages. ONCE stepped forward to support the production of a Spanish edition.
Starting with the January 1973 issue, The Educator would carry a separate column covering developments in the education of the deaf-blind and in other services related to this field. The editor of "The Deaf-Blind: News and Activities" would be Theodore Pauw from South Africa. During the conference there were many "extras" provided by ONCE: trips to points of local interest, banquets, musical events and other recreational activities. These, coupled with the fine educational experiences, were much appreciated by all who attended (Heisler 1977). If the hospitality of ONCE would long be remembered, it would be the recommendations of the Resolutions Committee on the future of the organization, which would have the most lasting and greatest impact. This included broadening the work of the Council (while in no way excluding consideration of the special needs particular to the blind and to the partially sighted) and the extension of activities beyond the school situation through the continuing period of higher education, vocational guidance and training into employment.
Unlike any other time in its history participants leaving this conference departed with the firm belief that their organization was truly engaged and would have a driving force to propel it forward. Jeanne Kenmore was that force, and she had firmly behind her a major organization (and her employer), HKI. She also had the continuing support of UNESCO, CBM, ONCE, Perkins, RNIB, RCSB and a number of other national private organizations. The next five years would be a most active period, with wide involvement throughout the organization. Reading reports generated during this period is like reading about a whole new organization, as different as the Steam Age is from the Jet Age.
Since she traveled a great deal in both developed and developing countries, Jeanne Kenmore observed many excellent teachers and leaders in services for the visually impaired. She developed projects – at least sixteen different projects – whereby ICEVI would enlist some of these people as volunteers in schools and centers needing consultative help. HKI was very generous in funding these projects, as was RCSB, ONCE, and the Saudi Arabian organization headed by Abdullah Al-Ghanim.
Many countries held frequent sectional or national conferences on the education of the visually handicapped, among them India, France, United Kingdom, West Germany, U.S.A. and Brazil (Kenmore 1977). There were periodic regional conferences of the Scandinavian countries; of German speakers in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria; in Oceania and nearby countries; and in the Asian region. But ICEVI as an international organization had never organized regional conferences to take place between quinquennial conferences. It seemed a logical next step.
As it became evident that regional activities could better serve many needs, a series of ICEVI regional conferences were held: the Asia Regional Conference in Singapore, 1973; an Oceania conference in Brisbane, Australia, 1974; a conference for European countries in Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, 1975; and an Asian conference in Penang, Malaysia, 1975. An Aid Committee (later to be called the Resource Committee) was formed with the task of arranging courses for developing countries through which leaders in education of the blind could share their knowledge with teachers in other parts of the globe (Kenmore 1982).
As chairman of the Aid Committee, Freddie Tooze, RCSB, developed a plan whereby experts from developed countries could give short courses in developing countries, with only their transportation and expenses being paid. Three courses from four to six weeks in length were held in Kenya in 1974, in Bahrain in 1975, and in Saudi Arabia in 1976. Each team of experts (four for Kenya and Saudi Arabia, three for Bahrain) was selected; the eleven experts were from England, Denmark, Netherlands, West Germany, U.S.A., Australia, and Argentina. By spending time in these three countries, the experts gained a great deal of important first hand information about social and economic conditions, the medical conditions of blind children, and methods of teaching, all of which would prove vital in developing programs to meet the needs of the blind in these countries.
As a means of stimulating interest in ICEVI activities and of raising funds, a system of individual membership was developed. The fee remained $5.00 per year for the five-year period between quinquennial conferences. Members received a subscription to The Educator and a copy of the International List of Schools for the Visually Handicapped.
Hundreds of questionnaires were sent out to secure as much information as possible about existing schools for the blind and partially-sighted children. Responses were received from 102 countries and the information was published in a small booklet entitled "International List of Schools for the Visually Handicapped." The printing was arranged and paid for by CBM of West Germany and the $2.50 per copy charged to non-members earned a little money for the ICEVI treasury.
As chairman of this committee, Natalie Barraga gathered information on many programs around the world which train teachers for visually handicapped children (Barraga 1997). "This is what got me interested in teaching courses, when I realized how little was being done in most countries—children were being deprived of what they could be learning and doing if someone [teachers] just knew where to start."
The ICEVI Committee on the Education of the Deaf-Blind held several regional and two world conferences. The first was in Condover, England in 1974. Despite efforts to limit attendance to ensure greater opportunity for discussion, the enrollment was the highest ever at such a conference. Then, in 1976, the Second World Conference on Deaf-Blind Children took place in Sydney, Australia. The participants were so enthusiastic, so responsive to one another and their shared professional interests, that they formed a new world organization to be known as the International Association for Education of the Deaf-Blind (IAEDB), and Keith Watkins, North Rocks School for Blind Children, Australia, was elected its first president.
Starting in 1972, ICEVI served in an advisory capacity to UNESCO and held membership on the Committee of World Organizations Interested in the Handicapped (CWOIH).
Representing ICEVI, various members of the Executive Committee participated in international meetings, study groups, and conferences on subjects including: mathematics and scientific Braille codes, recreation for the blind, mobility, the rights of handicapped persons, and job opportunities for the handicapped.
"…many hours of preparation were evident as they brought us new views of familiar subjects, fresh ideas, new philosophies, intriguing problems, and stimulating challenges." Jeanne Kenmore
"This conference has not ignored the fact that we live in an economically divided world…I am aware that the needs of the blind differ greatly in various parts of the world. Whereas in some parts they struggle for recognition, equal treatment, and self-determination, in other regions of the world they fight for pure survival." Wolfgang Stein
The over 700 who gathered in the summer of 1977 at the UNESCO building in Paris for ten days of glorious blue skies and warm, gentle breezes would confront a far different organization than they had seen several years before. Those who attended the opening of the conference and heard the keynote address by Stanley Bourgeault of George Peabody College for Teachers must have been galvanized by his words. He set the stage for their professional endeavors with, as Jeanne Kenmore put it, a "superb" speech. He spoke of the diversity of attendees: "We represent a variety of cultures, religious or philosophic beliefs, family structures, social milieu, and economic bases," and he continued, "There has been a tendency over the years to discount individualism in program and format; in a sense, individualism has been thwarted – it has not been reinforcing. And this is unfortunate, for in fact, DIFFERENT IS BEAUTIFUL!"
Bourgeault challenged the conference participants to attend sessions and workshops with a new perspective: to listen and learn about the diversity of blind students and educational programs worldwide. "Technology," he pointed out, "is important and we should be ready to receive its benefits, but we must stress ‘ready.’ It’s a giant stride from a camel to a Kurzweil!" He asked them to look at the individual from all aspects of the individual student’s life and education:
"In a world comprised of individuals, each child needs educational experiences suited to him and his culture. How often have we scoured the countryside for blind children, removed them from their natural environments, trained them in ‘modern ways’ of toileting behaviors, wearing shoes, appropriate dress and manner and with an ‘academic’ (meaning ‘literary’) overview, and then sat in despair as the young, acultured product— a city migrant against his own will—has his unrealistic life expectations dashed by the realities of the larger socioeconomic panorama of his culture. This is not a concluding statement! Rather, it is, hopefully, the Beginning."
And that was what the Organizing Committee had done. As Bourgeault had implored in his address, they had planned a program which covered topics of common interest viewed from "individual perspectives": Personal Efficiency and Visual Efficiency, Mobility, Daily Living Skills, Optical Aids, Classroom Techniques, and Visually Handicapped Children, both Gifted and Multi-Handicapped. Needless to say, it was an enriching and rewarding ten days. Participants had come to Paris, the "home" of modern education of the blind, and many had also visited the village of Coupvray to see the house where Louis Braille was born in 1809. To walk about Coupvray was to walk through history, to see where a young boy who changed history was raised and was buried, until his remains were later moved to the Pantheon in Paris, where he was placed along with France’s greatest heroes.
One of the important highlights of the 1977 Paris conference was the adoption of a new Constitution. Two important provisions of the Constitution were addressed: first, to change the title of the chief officer from "Chairman" to "International President," and second, that seven "Regional Presidents" would be selected to represent Africa, Europe, the Far East, Latin America, the Middle East, North America and Oceania. Those selected were to represent their regions during the 1977-1982 quinquennium.
For the first time a summary of the financial report for the previous five years (1972-1977) was published. Yet, as Jeanne Kenmore pointed out in the proceedings, the report did not represent the whole picture. She noted that "many other contributions were made to the work of the organization. Although the names of these organizations have in some cases changed, it is important for us to look at this report as it gives us some concept of how this unique organization functions. It also gives an insight into what goes into organizing the conferences."
HKI offered extensive working time of the ICEVI chairman and two secretaries during the fiveyear period, and paid travel expenses for several international trips for the chairman. In addition HKI paid bills for postage and office supplies. CBM, RCSB, HKI and ONCE offered tickets and expense money directly to many participants to attend ICEVI regional conferences as well as the quinquennial conference. ONCE was particularly generous in providing a ticket to Paris for one participant from each Spanish speaking country in the world and in translating and distributing free Spanish editions of The Educator.
The French Government and the French Organizing Committee made possible the rental of the UNESCO facilities and offered gracious hospitality. Raymond Chaplain, Director of Institute National des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, delayed his retirement one year in order to assist in preparations for this conference. CBM paid for the printing and much of the distribution of the International List of Schools for Visually Handicapped Children. In addition, many other contributions were made toward the work and expenses of officers and members of ICEVI.
The person chosen to be the first International President of ICEVI was Wolfgang Stein. Wolfgang was especially qualified for the position. As director of Overseas Services of CBM he was responsible for overseeing the education and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities, as well as their medical services. The person who took the reins of ICEVI clearly stated his mission in the January 1978 edition of The Educator:
"Personally I felt that the conference (Paris1977) was another step towards strengthening the solidarity of workers, for the visually handicapped from around the world. I would like to assure you that I shall use my new office for exactly the same goal; to achieve more solidarity among us, to reduce the gap that exists between various regions of the world and their people. Belonging to an international organization implies also sharing international responsibilities, looking beyond our own horizon and recognizing the needs of others."
In this role Wolfgang Stein carried ICEVI to world prominence. Under his leadership there were many more regional conferences (Kenmore 1982). During his two terms as President (1977-87) he created a level of awareness of the needs of blind and visually impaired persons in developing countries that had not existed within the organization before his tenure (Campbell 2001). Through his work with both CBM and ICEVI, his passion and commitment to the capabilities of blind children and adults in developing countries was transmitted to professionals throughout the world.
This awareness of the possibilities for education and training of the blind is seen in the regular regional reports, which started appearing in The Educator in January 1978. Readers could peruse articles such as "Pre-Work Experience at the Helen Keller Institute" (Cordoba, Argentina), and "A Report on International Aid to Schools and Organizations for the Blind." Special projects conducted by ICEVI members were described in detail. Articles on programs and services of related organizations such as ONCE, RCSB, and Perkins were included in the journal. For the first time members could read announcements about other conferences, seminars and symposia, which had, direct relevance to their own work.
In August Mr. Heisler retired both from Perkins and from the position of editor of The Educator. So ended his association with the journal that began back in 1967. Perkins’ commitment to The Educator continued, however, with organization and publication accomplished through the school’s public relations office.
There had been much discussion over the previous few years of holding the conference in a developing country, and much thought had been given to where it might be held. Both Jeanne Kenmore and Wolfgang Stein knew many countries in Asia, Africa and South America, which would be only too willing to host the conference. In the end it was decided that Kenya would serve as the host country, and plans were made to hold the conference at the excellent (and probably the most beautiful facility in Africa at that time), the Kenyatta Conference Centre in Nairobi.
Wolfgang Stein and Jeanne Kenmore worked together to plan the conference. Jeanne left HKI in 1981 and joined CBM. As was the tradition she became the Vice President of ICEVI and in this capacity she would assist Wolfgang Stein and many others by supporting the Kenya Conference Committee in planning what would have been an outstanding conference. But this was not to be, as one small event in history, lasting only a few short days, precluded any possibility for the conference to fully take place.
Events were recorded in Wolfgang Stein’s own words in the proceedings of the Seventh Quinquennial Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, August 1-7, 1982: "The [attempted] coup d’etat which began early the very first day of our conference in Kenya was a new experience for ICEVH. The political events gave all of us great anxiety and unpleasant experiences. Yet in several ways the happenings in Nairobi brought many of us much closer together as human beings and fellow professionals… I must admit that it was with a heavy heart and a feeling of deep disappointment that I announced to the participants [on August 5] our decision to break off the conference. In spite of this, we did not leave Nairobi feeling discouraged. During those awful days many participants became closer to each other; bonds of friendship were tied, and dialogue between professionals also took place and was intensified in many small groups."
At the end of a few awful days Nairobi returned again to its tranquil self. What had transpired was carried out by a few military personnel and a small number of the general public. After the conference some participants remained and did have a chance to visit schools and agencies for the blind. One delegate would later write that he thought the strange events, though unsettling, had a unifying effect on ICEVI members. Wolfgang Stein put the sad events behind him and returned home to his work for CBM and ICEVI in Germany. Wasting no time, he started planning the next ICEVI World Conference of 1987, to be held in Würzburg, Germany. He also saw to it that the proceedings of the Kenya conference were published. They would include all papers, only four of which had actually been read in the Plenary Session. These Proceedings contained the new Constitution, on which the Executive Committee held preliminary discussions in Nairobi and later approved through a mail vote.
With the 1982 Quinquennial Conference being held in Kenya, a new era of wider cooperation with countries of the Third World had begun. ICEVI as a professional organization had reached a greater level of maturity.