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Educators who work with students with visual impairments must address several unique challenges when providing literacy instruction. The challenges are magnified in some areas of the world, especially those in which educational services are provided in remote or rural settings or areas with severe economic hardships. These challenges are remarkably the same regardless of the educational setting. This article will explore some common challenges and issues  and offer some suggestions for meeting these challenges.  We will discuss the need for qualified individuals to provide literacy instruction, issues related to teaching contracted and uncontracted braille, instruction in both print and braille (dual media), and providing instruction to students with additional disabilities.

Qualified personnel

Students with visual impairments in North America generally receive direct instruction from a qualified teacher of students with visual impairments.  Qualifications typically include certification as a general or special education teacher, as well as certification as a specialist in visual impairment.  Recently, however, there has been a disturbing increase in the amount of direct service provided by paraeducators (individuals without a teaching certificate).  The requirements and qualifications for paraeducators vary greatly.  In some school districts, paraeducators have little training and experience beyond a high school diploma.  Yet, in some cases, they are given primary responsibility for providing instruction in literacy skills for braille reading students.

The reliance of some school districts on paraeducators instead of qualified teachers of students with visual impairments may have occurred for a number of reasons.  First, the field of special education has embraced the use of paraeducators to support students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Students with cognitive or physical disabilities may need the on-going and continuous support of an adult in order to be successfully included in a general education classroom.  This may be an acceptable practice for students with cognitive or severe physical disabilities who may be expected to require a level of assistance in order to function in adult life.  However, it is a questionable practice for students who are blind or visually impaired since they should be learning, from a very early age, to complete tasks independently.

Second, the itinerant teaching model is used most commonly to provide services to students who are blind or visually impaired in public school programs. Students with minimal needs for specialized instruction benefit most from an itinerant model.  However, the current use of itinerant services sometimes provides indiscriminate use of this model, even when students may need more intense services. When such students have difficulty in class, a school district may conclude that the students need on-going support of a paraeducator to succeed, when the real answer lies in more intense instruction by a qualified teacher. This will help assure that students learn specialized compensatory skills and progress toward an independent adult life.

Itinerant teachers who have large, unmanageable caseloads generally provide limited services to their students. While an accomplished student in high school might be appropriately supported by an itinerant teacher, a child who is beginning to learn to read and write in braille may have more intense needs that cannot be met by an itinerant teacher with a large caseload.

Third, there is a critical shortage of qualified teachers of students with visual impairments.  University programs are not able to keep up with the demand for qualified personnel.  Therefore, school districts may not be able to recruit and hire specialized teachers.  In these cases, unqualified teachers are often hired to meet the needs of students who are visually impaired.

Professionals involved in the education of students with visual impairments must work together to advocate for qualified teachers. It is important that we continue to engage in extensive professional discussion to determine the standards for qualification of teachers working with students who are blind or visually impaired. Also, university programs must seek new and innovative ways to prepare additional numbers of teachers. Many universities are exploring the use of distance education, which provides more opportunities for interested persons to receive training in or near their home communities

Beginning literacy instruction

The common practice in North America in teaching young students who are blind to read braille is to use contracted braille from the beginning of instruction.  In this approach, students learn literacy skills while at the same time being introduced systematically to the 189 contractions and short-form words that comprise English Braille American Edition.  The Patterns series was designed specifically for integrating the teaching of literacy skills with the teaching of braille code skills.  When other approaches are used, such as a standard basal reading series or a holistic literature approach, then the specialist is responsible for providing supplementary instruction in recognition and use of braille contractions.

Teachers currently are exploring the issues and practices related to providing instruction in uncontracted braille for young students.  In this approach, students are taught the braille alphabet as part of early braille literacy experiences.  This allows students to benefit from a wide range of early literacy activities and to concentrate on developing literacy skills.  Then, after a period of initial instruction, students would begin the transition to contracted braille.

There are several issues related to the use of uncontracted braille in initial instruction that teachers are now examining.  First, almost all braille books are transcribed in fully contracted braille by transcribing agencies in North America.  Therefore, most or all materials for young readers must be transcribed in uncontracted braille by local school districts.   This places considerable demands on the teacher and the school in which the student is enrolled.  However, to provide a rich literacy environment, the teacher of students with visual impairments must assure that a variety of braille materials are readily available in the environment, both for instructional purposes and for leisure reading.

Second, there are no guidelines available for helping the teacher plan the transition from uncontracted to contracted braille.  Teachers who decide to introduce students to uncontracted braille at the beginning of literacy instruction will need to make reasoned judgments about when and how to transition to contracted braille.  Anecdotal reports from teachers suggest that this process occurs somewhat naturally, at least at first, since students inevitably encounter contracted braille and are curious about the meaning of the unknown signs.  However, after this initial period of informal introduction, more systematic instruction likely will be needed.  A related issue is the lack of instructional materials specifically designed for this purpose. As teachers continue to examine this issue, new instructional materials should be developed.

Third, there is a great need for research to explore the effectiveness of early literacy instruction.  The issue of instruction in contracted and uncontracted braille as well as other issues such as instructional approach, availability of leisure materials, service delivery and intensity of instruction need to be examined in order to inform our practice.

Professionals will continue to debate the issues related to initial teaching of uncontracted braille, and researchers will investigate the various factors that influence the process of literacy development.  In the meantime, teachers and other team members will need to use their common sense and professional judgment to design, deliver, and evaluate early literacy programs in uncontracted braille.  We encourage team members to carefully consider the assessed, individual needs of each student and consider the advantages and disadvantages of introducing uncontracted braille before making a decision.

Teaching in dual media

The typical approach to literacy instruction for students who are blind or visually impaired has been to select one medium (print or braille) and emphasize instruction in that single medium.  This practice is being challenged now, and teachers in North America are showing more acceptance of teaching in dual media (that is, print and braille) for some students with low vision.  In general, these are students who have the capacity to learn print reading, but their eye condition, level of fluency, or potential efficiency are at question.  By providing instruction in dual media, students who develop proficiency in both print and braille are able to select a specific medium for a specific task, thereby allowing a greater capacity for gaining access to information.

The major issues that surround teaching literacy skills in dual media overlap, in part, are similar to those related to instruction in uncontracted braille.  First, there are no specific guidelines, instructional approaches, or materials for such instruction.  Therefore, designing the literacy instructional program must be guided by the skills and creativity of the teacher of students with visual impairments.  Instruction in dual media, however, does not mean that the amount of time and effort must be doubled. The key is to address the unique aspects of teaching print and of teaching braille, while capitalizing on the shared processes of reading and writing, which are the same regardless of the medium.  For example, strategies for increasing a student’s reading vocabulary are the same in print or braille, though strategies for recognizing the words are somewhat different.  However, some aspects of word recognition, such as phonics and structural analysis, are more similar than different.

Students who read and write in print typically receive instruction from a general classroom teacher, students who read and write in braille typcially receive instruction from the specialist in visual impairment.  The question of who will provide instruction for the student who is learning to read and write in both braille and print is critical.  If the teacher of students with visual impairments teaches literacy skills in both print and braille, then he or she can capitalize on the similarities between the two media.  However, if the braille program is taught by the specialist in visual impairment and the print program is taught by a general classroom teacher, then steps must be taken to carefully coordinate instruction between these two professionals.  The various ways that can be used to provide such coordination are under the control of the creative and collaborative educational team.

Research is needed to determine the impact of teaching in dual media on the current and future development of literacy skills.  Some argue that it will take much longer to teach a student to read in both print and braille.  One could argue that with a skillfully interwoven program, learning to read and write in dual media would not add substantial time to the instructional process, though this must be addressed through research.  Also, research should address the advantages and disadvantages of learning in dual media, as well as the factors that correlate with later success in both school and adult life.

Literacy skills for students with additional disabilities 

The literacy needs of students with additional disabilities should be examined and addressed with the same care and commitment as those of students with only visual impairment.  Because students with additional disabilities are often provided only consultation services by a qualified teacher of students with visual impairments, it will take special effort to make sure that the examination of literacy needs occurs.

Students with cognitive disabilities in addition to their visual impairment may need instruction in the use of a functional literacy system. Functional literacy for sighted students with cognitive disabilities has been quite well defined and includes environmental signs, food labels, and labels used for daily living activities.  Functional literacy for students with cognitive disabilities and visual impairment will include only those symbols that can be accessed without vision.  For example, functional literacy for sighted students who have cognitive disabilities might include learning to read E-X-I-T as Exit and understand that the word indicates where the door to the outside is located.  The same skill would not be seen as functional for a student who is visually impaired since the Exit sign generally is not tactilely accessible.  Therefore, it is important to clearly define functional literacy based on individual students’ daily activities and encourage parents and educators to think creatively in order to include literacy in the lives of students with visual impairments and cognitive disabilities.

The literacy needs of students with physical disabilities and blindness should also receive careful attention by qualified teachers of students with visual impairments.  While there are many adaptive devices that can be used for reading and writing by students with physical disabilities and visual impairments, there must be a high level of instruction in order for students to be successful.  Creative teachers and parents should encourage students with physical disabilities to explore unconventional ways to read and write using braille and print.  For example, students with physical disabilities might use fingers other than their index finger to read, or use their wrists and side of their hand to push the keys of the braillewriter.  Exploring a wide variety of adaptations for reading and writing allows students with visual impairments and additional disabilities the opportunity to include literacy in their lives.

Conclusion

The importance of solid literacy skills for all students, including those with visual impairments, cannot be overstated.  While arguments can be made for and against many of the instructional methods that are used to reach the goal of literacy, the underlying goal for students to develop literacy skills that allow them to compete on an equal footing in adult life with people who are sighted.  Issues that continue to challenge teachers and parents relate to the need for qualified personnel, instruction in contracted and uncontracted braille, instruction in both print and braille, and providing literacy instruction for students with additional disabilities.  Questions related to each of these issues continue to be debated through professional literature and dialog.  However, while the debates continue, students are progressing through school and must receive the most comprehensive, cohesive literacy instructional programs possible in order to develop the strong literacy skills necessary for a productive adult life.

Correspondence:

M. Cay HolbrooK
University of British Columbia
2125 Main Mall
Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4
Canada
cay.holbrook@ubc.ca

Alan J. Koenig
Texas Tech University
Box 41071
Lubbock, TX 79409-1071
USA
alan.koenig@ttu.edu

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