THE EDUCATOR
Volume XXIV, ISSUE 1 July
2011
RESEARCH
IN VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
A Publication of
The International
Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment
PRINCIPAL OFFICERS
PRESIDENT
Lord Low of Dalston
Royal National Institute
of Blind People (RNIB)
105 Judd Street, London
WC1H 9NE, UNITED KINGDOM
e-mail : colin.low@rnib.org.uk
IMMEDIATE PAST PRESIDENT
Lawrence F.
Campbell
1,
Center Street, Rockland, Maine 04841, USA
e-mail : larryicevi@hotmail.com
FIRST VICE PRESIDENT
e-mail : jillek@unimelb.edu.au
SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT
Hans Welling
Royal Visio
Amersfoortsestraatweg 180, 1272 RR Huizen
THE NETHERLANDS
e-mail : hanswelling@visio.org
TREASURER
Nandini Rawal
Blind People’s Association, Jagdish
Patel Chowk, Surdas Marg,
Vastrapur, Ahmedabad 380 015, INDIA.
e-mail
: bpaiceviad1@sancharnet.in
SECRETARY GENERAL
Mani, M.N.G.
No.3,
Professors’ Colony, Palamalai Road, S.R.K. Vidyalaya Post,
Coimbatore 641
020, INDIA
e-mail : sgicevi@vsnl.net
REGIONAL CHAIRPERSONS
AFRICA
Wilfred Maina
African Braille Centre, P.O. Box 27715,
00506, Nairobi, KENYA
e-mail
: wmaina@africanbraille.org
EAST ASIA
Suwimon Udompiriyasak
Faculty of
Education, Suan Dusit Rajabhat University, 295 Ratchasima Road
Dusit Dist.,
Bangkok 10300, THAILAND
EUROPE
Hans Welling
Visio, Amersfoortsestraatweg 180, 1272
RR Huizen, THE NETHERLANDS
e-mail : hanswelling@visio.org
LATIN
AMERICA
Lucia
Piccione
Urquiza 2659, 5001 Cordoba, ARGENTINA
e-mail : lpiccione@arnet.com.ar
NORTH
AMERICA/CARIBBEAN
Kathleen M. Huebner
NCLVI, College of Education and Rehabilitation, Salus
University
8360 Old York Road, Elkins Park, PA.
19027, USA
e-mail : kathyh@salus.edu
PACIFIC
Frances Gentle
The Renwick Centre, Royal Institute for Deaf & Blind Children
Private Bag 29, Parramatta NSW 2124, AUSTRALIA.
e-mail : frances.gentle@ridbc.org.au
WEST ASIA
Bhushan Punani
Blind People’s Association, Jagdish
Patel Chowk, Surdas Marg
Vastrapur, Ahmedabad 380 015, INDIA
e-mail : blinabad1@bsnl.in
FOUNDING ORGANISATIONS
American Foundation for the Blind
Maureen Matheson
11 Penn Plaza, Suite 300, New York, NY
10001, USA.
e-mail : cynthia@afb.net
Perkins School for the Blind
Steven M. Rothstein
175 North Beacon Street, Watertown, MA
02472, USA.
e-mail : president@perkins.org
Royal National Institute of Blind People
Lord Low of Dalston
105 Judd Street, London WC1H 9NE,
UNITED KINGDOM.
e-mail : colin.low@rnib.org.uk
INTERNATIONAL NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
Deafblind
International
Bernadette M. Kappen
999, Pelham Parkway Bronx, New York
10469, USA
e-mail: bkappen@nyise.org
World Blind Union
Maryanne Diamond
454 Glenferrie Rd, Kooyong, Vic. 3144, AUSTRALIA
e-mail : maryanne.diamond@visionaustralia.org
International Agency for the Prevention of
Blindness
Christian Garms
Wilhelmstr. 31, 64625 Bensheim, GERMANY
e-mail : chrgarms@web.de
NON-GOVERNMENTAL DEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATIONS
CBM
Catherine
Naughton
Nibelungenstrasse
124, 64625 Bensheim, GERMANY.
e-mail : Catherine.Naughton@cbm.org
Norwegian Association of the Blind and
Partially Sighted (NABPS)
Arnt Holte
P.O. Box
5900, Majorstua0308 Oslo, NORWAY.
e-mail
: arnt.holte@blindeforbundet.no
Organización
Nacional de Ciegos Españoles
Ana Peláez
C/ Almansa,
66, 28039 Madrid, SPAIN
e-mail : apn@once.es
Perkins School for the Blind
Aburey Webson
175 North Beacon Street, Watertown, MA
02472, USA.
e-mail : Aubrey.Webson@perkins.org
Royal National Institute of Blind
People
Pete Osborne
105 Judd Street, London WC1H 9NE,
UNITED KINGDOM.
e-mail : Pete.Osborne@rnib.org.uk
Sightsavers
Adelaide Addo-Fening
Grosvenor Hall, Bolnore Road, Haywards
Heath, West Sussex RH16 4BX,
UNITED KINGDOM.
e-mail:
aaddo-fenning@sightsavers.org
Union Francophone des Aveugles
Francoise MADRAY-LESIGNE
5, rue
Duroc, 75007, Paris, FRANCE
e-mail : international@avh.asso.fr
Vision Australia
Glenda Alexander
454 Glenferrie Rd, Kooyong, Vic. 3144, AUSTRALIA
e-mail : glenda.alexander@visionaustralia.org
Education For All children with
Visual Impairment (EFA-VI)
Global Campaign
The Education for
All Children with Visual Impairment (EFA-VI) is a Global Campaign and programme
of the International Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment
(ICEVI) acting in partnership with the World Blind Union (WBU) to ensure that
all girls and boys with blindness and low vision enjoy the right to education.
The Campaign,
launched on July 16, 2006 is focusing on children in the developing world where
currently it is estimated that less than ten-percent have access to
education.
Highlights of the Campaign
·
addresses three key Millennium Development Goals:
-achieving universal primary education, -promoting gender equality and
-developing global partnerships for development.
·
stresses the right to education as emphasised in the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
·
works within the framework of the general and special
education systems.
·
focuses on awareness and demand creation for education of
children with visual impairment.
·
Stresses on the provision of appropriate support in
educational settings.
·
Capacity building of teachers and others, development of
literature, production of assistive devices and operational research are
important elements.
Indicators of success
·
increased enrolment rates,
·
reduced dropout rates,
·
improved access to support services, and
·
educational achievement for children with visual
impairment, on par with non-disabled children.
Global
Campaign on Education For All Children with Visual Impairment (EFA-VI)
|
Regions |
Existing Focus Countries |
Proposed Focus Countries |
|
Africa |
·
Ethiopia ·
Mozambique ·
Burkina Faso |
·
Ghana ·
Kenya ·
Malawi ·
Mali ·
Rwanda ·
Uganda |
|
East
Asia |
·
China ·
Vietnam ·
Cambodia |
·
Laos |
|
Latin
America |
·
Bolivia ·
Ecuador ·
El salvador ·
Guatemala ·
Honduras ·
Nicaragua ·
Paraguay ·
The
Dominican Republic |
·
Chile ·
Peru |
|
Pacific |
·
Fiji |
·
Papua New
Guinea |
|
West
Asia |
·
Nepal ·
Pakistan ·
Palestine |
·
Bangladesh ·
Sri Lanka ·
Tajikistan |
Editor
W. Aubrey Webson
Director, Perkins International
Perkins School for the Blind
175 North Beacon Street
Watertown
MA 02472
USA
Associate
Editor
M.N.G. Mani
Secretary General, ICEVI
Editorial
Committee
W. Aubrey Webson
Lord Low of Dalston
M.N.G. Mani
ICEVI Secretariat
No.3, Professors’ Colony, S R K Vidyalaya
Post, Coimbatore – 641 020
Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Phone : 91-422-2469104
Fax : 91-422-2693414
e-mail : sgicevi@vsnl.net
Our
International Partners
·
CBM
·
Union
Francophone des Aveugles
·
Norwegian
Association of the Blind and Partially Sighted
·
Organización
Nacional de Ciegos Españoles
·
Perkins
School for the Blind
·
Royal
National Institute of Blind People
·
Sightsavers
·
Vision
Australia
CONTENTS
1. Message
from the President
2. Message
from the Editor
3. Introduction
to the Theme
4. EFA-VI
Global Campaign - Tangible Results
5. Summary
of Discussions of ICEVI-INGDO Meeting
6. News
from World Blind Union
- Maryanne Diamond
7. Using
Wisdom-Based Evidence to Guide Practice
- Rashida Banerjee
8. Writing
for Publication
- Duane Geruschat
9. An Examination of the
Past Three Years of Peer-Reviewed Research Published in Five Major English
Language Journals in Visual Impairment and Blindness
- Adam Wilton & Cay Holbrook
10. Research
Around the World
11. A Brief
Primer of Research Terms
Message from the President
The
most significant event that has taken place since my E-News message in April is
the two-day strategy planning meeting for the Africa region. This meeting was held with leading
International Non-Governmental Development Organisations (INGDO’s) in
conjunction with the 5th Africa Forum in Accra, Ghana at the beginning of
July. In attendance were more than 35
participants representing CBM, Sightsavers, ONCE, Visio, Light for the World,
the South African National Council for the Blind, the African Union of the
Blind, Perkins School for the Blind, Braille South Africa, the Francophone
Union of the Blind and the World Braille Foundation, along with the Principal
Officers, Secretary General and Chair of the Africa Region from ICEVI. Some very businesslike, constructive and
fruitful discussions took place. Our EFA-VI committees were also able to meet
and an excellent spirit prevailed throughout.
There was great unity of purpose and it was clear that everyone felt
that ICEVI was adding value.
What
was particularly heartening was the way in which our International Partners
were willing to put their resources at our disposal in order to make our own
limited resources go further to help us achieve our aims. Some examples of the
resources that were shared included receiving help with funding applications as
well as the production of policy papers to assist us as we pursue our advocacy
objectives.
The
principal outcome from the meeting was the development of a grid showing which
organisations were working in each of the countries in Africa and which
services they were providing. It emerged
that work is going on in 50 out of 52 countries. This will be an excellent resource for
planning and coordination. This grid
makes it easy to see at-a-glance which countries should be next in line for
developing as focus countries. Steps are already being taken to compile a
similar grid for our other regions.
Great
thanks go to Dr. Mani, our hard-working Secretary General, not only for the
flawless organisation of the meeting, but also for his master-minding of the
strategic outcome. Thanks also go to
Bernard Mogesa, who has acted as Coordinator for the Africa region for the last
three years is, sadly, leaving us to take up a prestigious post with the
government of Kenya. The extent to which
people were impressed with what has been undertaken in the Africa region is a
tribute to Bernard's efforts. Our good
wishes go with him in his new post and I am happy to say that he is anxious to
remain in touch with ICEVI and will continue to promote our cause whenever he
has the opportunity.
I
hope we will be able to hold a similar meeting in one of our regions every year
as it is obviously very beneficial in terms of morale and profile raising, as
well as for planning and coordination.
In order to maximise the publicity value of the event, a press release
was issued about our plans to take the EFA-VI campaign to the next stage.
At
the end of the meeting we were joined by colleagues from the World Blind Union
(WBU) and the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB) to
take forward the resolutions passed at the recent Executive meetings of ICEVI
and WBU and develop a joint strategy for advancing the EFA-VI campaign. In an effort to influence national
governments and national education plans, donor countries and the World Bank, a
range of actions were agreed upon.
These are already beginning to be implemented. I am also delighted to say that we are collaborating
more closely with the World Bank's Fast Track Initiative (FTI) which has two
billion dollars to disburse in support of Education for All (EFA)
programmes. A representative of ICEVI
will be joining an FTI mission to Ethiopia in October. We have brokered a link
between FTI and Krousar Thmey, the organisation we work most closely with in
Cambodia, to make sure that the interests of children with visual impairments
are at the forefront.
In
April I mentioned that ICEVI and WBU had submitted a statement to the Annual
Ministerial Meeting of the UN’s Department of Economic and Social Affairs in
July. It was not possible for us to
attend, but we made contact with a number of national governments in hopes that
their national delegations would make reference to the statement in their
presentation. We understand that the
Senegal delegation did just that and, as a result, Article 22 of the
declaration issued at the meeting stresses the importance of ensuring that
persons with disabilities have equal opportunities to participate fully in
education and in community life. It is
regrettable that disability is given much less prominence than other issues,
but it is a start.
After
much deliberation, the Principal Officers have decided to hold a General
Assembly preceded two days of workshops with the WBU. In addition, there will be a strategic
planning day with the WBU, our international partners and global agencies for
the joint event with the WBU in November 2012.
We believe that conferences will be more effective and meaningful to our
members at the regional level, and so we are planning to hold a conference in
the Bangkok region around the time of the joint event.
Our
Executive Committee will be meeting in Leipzig, Germany, on 1-2 October, and
all these matters will be discussed further. I will report to you again after
that meeting.
Colin
Low
Message from the
Editor
As
the new editor of The Educator, I first want to express my appreciation to the
leaders of ICEVI for trusting us at Perkins to once again lead on the
production of The Educator. Those of you
who are “longtime” readers of this journal may remember the days many years ago
when Perkins led on its production. We
are delighted to be back …
I
want to thank my entire team at Perkins for working along with me in the
production of this issue, and to look ahead and thank the team for coming along
on this new journey. I am looking
forward to learning as we work and more importantly to be supportive in advocating
the mission of ICEVI to extend educational opportunities to children throughout
the world.
I
embrace this cause daily in my role as Director of Perkins International at
Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA USA and I consider it a privilege
to be part of the international field striving to use education as another tool
in changing what it means to combat disability.
Our team at Perkins International strives daily to advance the creation
of inclusive communities where children who are blind, deafblind or partially
sighted including those with additional disabilities can reach their greatest
potential. We believe that every child
has the right and ability to grow and learn in a nurturing environment.
I
view The Educator not only as a journal but also as a source of reference and
inspiration on others’ experiences and dealings with challenges. It is a publication of knowledge sharing with
thematic issues on topics such as low vision, self-esteem, independence,
Braille, literacy, inclusive education, and research in visual impairment. There is emphasis on sharing as I do welcome
and encourage your ideas on future themes, feedback and any suggestions for
improvement.
In
this issue you will find an update from both the ICEVI and the WBU on current
work undertaken. Our ICEVI President
will update you on the progress of the work in the EFA-VI in Africa. The WBU article is an exciting introduction
on the movement’s efforts towards addressing the challenges of unemployment
faced by persons who are blind and partially sighted around the world.
Dr.
Kay Ferrell of the University of Northern Colorado has ably led us in bringing
together some strong academic articles looking at preparation of material, and
writing for submission to a journal amongst others. You will find these articles stimulating and
informative.
Finally,
I am truly excited about this new assignment as editor of The Educator. This role will bring me into contact with
contributors of articles from all over the globe. To colleagues present and future, I look
forward to your continued support of this publication and of developing the
education of children and young people who are visually impaired.
Dr. W. Aubrey Webson
Introduction to
the Theme
We
are pleased to be writing to you as the new editors of the Educator. This is the second in a series of two issues
focusing on Research in Visual Impairment, guest edited by Kay Alicyn
Ferrell. This issue examines topics that
we hope will be thought-provoking and encouraging. The articles call for a reflection on
practice; past and present trends; and the meaning behind the trends as we
continue to strive for best practices for educating infant, children, and youth
with visual impairments.
Rashida
Banerjee, in “Using Wisdom-Based Evidence to Guide Practice” invites practitioners
to consider the issues related to the current demand for “evidence-based”
practices. Ms. Banerjee challenges practitioners to consider the idea that
wisdom-based evidence is critical because it integrates experiential knowledge,
societal values, political judgment, resources, habits and tradition. She provides a description of wisdom-based
evidence as well as a rationale for its use, particularly for low-incidence
disabilities, and she presents various tools to assist us in the “know-do”
process.
Duane
Geruschat provides guidance for researchers in “Writing for Publication”. This article walks the aspiring author
through the publication process, including submission, review, revision, and
editing. Mr. Geruschat reviews the
standard format for a manuscript and advises researchers on how to select a
professional journal for publication of their work.
This
article is followed by “An Examination of the Past Three Years of Peer-Reviewed
Research Published in Five Major English Language Journals in Vision Impairment
and Blindness” by Adam Wilton and M. Cay Holbrook. 68 journal issues were included in the study,
which reveals some interesting findings related to the types of research
activities, tools and methods used for gathering data, and the types of papers
being published. The review shows that
the types of research in the field of visual impairment and blindness around
the world are of a great variety and depth.
The
Regional Chairs of ICEVI have identified the research projects being carried out
in their regions. A summary of these
projects is included in this issue and gives us a feel for the amount of
research going on around the world.
Finally,
“A Brief Primer on Research Terms” will be a useful reference tool when reading
research reports. Although it is not a
comprehensive list, it provides a list of selected terms commonly used in
literature. Each term is presented with
a brief definition and an example of how you might see the term applied in
research and in our field.
We
hope you have enjoyed this focus on Research in Visual Impairment. Clearly, this is an important area in the
field and we hope the articles have been informative. In addition, we hope that these issues have
sparked an interest in furthering this very important work!
The
Editorial Team
EFA-VI Global
Campaign - Tangible Results
Promotion of educational
opportunities for children with visual impairment is one of the main objectives
of ICEVI. The organisation serves as a
catalyst to ensure that the rights of visually impaired children to education
are addressed at all levels. Realising
the fact that more than 4.4 million children with visual impairment from
developing regions do not have access to education, ICEVI is lobbying at the
global, regional and national levels to create awareness that education for all
is not a reality unless children with visual impairment are included in the
mainstream. Therefore, ICEVI is
impressing upon the Global Education For All initiatives to make the disability
component an integral part of the mainstream education system. In order to
demonstrate that education is the fundamental right of the child, ICEVI acting
in partnership with the World Blind Union (WBU), launched a Global Campaign on
Education for All children with Visual Impairment (EFA-VI) in 2006 with the
following broad expectations:
1) Increase the
enrollment of children with visual impairments in schools 2) Promote their retention in the school system
3) Ensure provision of appropriate support services which contribute to quality
education and 4) Ensure that children with visual impairments perform on par
with non-disabled children. The Campaign
is currently being implemented in 12 focus countries including Ecuador,
Ethiopia, Fiji, Honduras, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Paraguay, The
Dominican Republic, and Vietnam. A research study pertaining to inclusion of
children with visual impairment was conducted in China that resulted in changes
in the policy formulation. The preparations for implementation of the campaign
are underway in Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Palestine, Bolivia, El Salvador and
Guatemala.
Data from 10 countries
(Ecuador, Ethiopia, Honduras, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Paraguay,
The Dominican Republic and Vietnam) reveals that 41,993 additional children
with visual impairment have been enrolled in schools and 13,280 teachers and
parents have been trained in areas such as Low Vision, Early Detection and
Assessment, Adapted Learning Materials, Abacus, Braille, Education of MDVI,
Inclusive Education, Visual Stimulation, Orientation and Mobility, Child
Protection Policies, Role of Parents in Education of Children with Visual
Impairment, and Activities of Daily Living.
In addition to the
Global Campaign, ICEVI is also implementing a Higher Education programme for
students with visual impairment in Indonesia, Philippines, Cambodia and Vietnam
which is assisting more than 300 adults to pursue higher education. In this project,
technology support is provided to the students and a number of leadership
training activities are being conducted to bring out their hidden
potentialities.
ICEVI strongly believes
that the service programmes should be supplemented by advocacy activities that
result into policy changes. ICEVI is
closely associated with the disability related programmes of UNESCO and
UNICEF. ICEVI is also working in close
collaboration with the World Bank to ensure that the disability component finds
a place in the national plans of countries that come under the Fast Track
Initiatives.
ICEVI is also
instrumental in drawing the attention of the Lions Clubs International
Foundation (LCIF) to educational activities and, as a result, the LCIF has
earmarked substantial grants for educational activities in developing countries
which should be utilized through the local Lions Clubs. ICEVI is working with its regional committees
to ensure that local initiatives to educate children with visual impairment are
in place to make use of the educational provisions of LCIF.
In summary, ICEVI is
demonstrating that both advocacy and evidence-based services are of vital
importance. The accomplishments of ICEVI
include international lobbying, networking, demonstration of good practices in
education of children with visual impairment and organizing capacity-building
activities.
Summary of Discussions of ICEVI-INGDO Meeting held in
Accra, Ghana on 1-2 July 2011
A meeting of the International Council for
Education of People with Visual Impairment (ICEVI) with leading International
Non-Governmental Development Organisations (INGDOs) was held in Accra, Ghana on
the 1st and 2nd of July 2011 in conjunction with the 5th Africa Forum. More than 35 participants representing the
African Union of the Blind (AFUB), Braille South Africa, CBM, Francophone Blind
Union, ICEVI, Light for the World, NABP, ONCE, Perkins School for the Blind,
Sightsavers, South African National Council for the Blind (SANCB), Visio, and
the World Braille Foundation attended the meeting.
The broad objectives of the meeting were:
1. To devise a framework within which we can
work together to advocate for the education of children with visual impairment;
and
2. To identify ways of sharing human resources
and exchange good practice for the effective implementation of the Global
Campaign.
Though the meeting was organized in the context of
the Africa region, some of the recommendations made were common in nature and
have implications for all regions of ICEVI while some other recommendations
were specific to the Africa region. Both
are presented in the following pages for the benefit of ICEVI constituency:
General
Recommendations
1. In the present context of education, both
advocacy and service delivery have to be addressed. Service delivery without
advocacy may not be effective for increasing educational access for children
with visual impairment.
2. ICEVI should work with other organisations
and broader initiatives involved in disability services.
3. Presence of active and strong
organizations of the blind in countries is important in order to implement the
EFA-VI campaign.
4. National governments, World Bank and donor
agencies should become the pressure points to make education for all children with
disabilities an integral part of the national EFA plans.
5. Presence of ICEVI in the UNCRPD-related
events is vital to create awareness amongst countries about the Fast Track
Initiative.
6. ICEVI may consider presenting a general
alternative report on education of children with disabilities, as well as a
specific report on the education of children with visual impairment to the
United Nations.
7. Data on education of school-age girls with
disabilities should receive special mention in all advocacy programmes.
8. ICEVI should share the existing findings
from the focus countries with international partners.
9. The WIPO intervention on access to
materials should also be emphasized in the advocacy campaign.
10. “Schools for All”, “Education for All”,
“Books for All”, etc., should become taglines in the EFA-VI campaign.
11. There is a need to work with the UNESCO and
UNICEF because they deal with the empowerment of children.
12. The regional committees of ICEVI should
address diverse areas including that of sub regions, gender issues, presence of
international organizations, Governments etc.
13. In the near future, the EFA-VI Campaign
should also be popularized in non-focus countries.
14. There is a need to map the activities of the
INGDO organisations where ICEVI is also involved to bring synergy into
services.
In addition to the above recommendations which are
applicable to all regions, the following are specific to the development of the
Africa region:
Recommendations specific to Africa region
1. There is a need for effective coordination
between the INGDOs present in the Africa region and this coordination should be
adopted at the national and sub-regional levels.
2. It is advisable to include representatives
of the EFA-VI focus countries on the ICEVI Africa regional committee to ensure
effective monitoring of the programme.
3. In order to make the region strong, the
regional chair will put together such a committee as soon as possible.
4. The presence of sub-regional coordinators
and even national level coordinators would contribute to the quality of the
EFA-VI campaign and it is suggested that the partner organizations in the
sub-regions replicate the services of their personnel to monitor EFA-VI
activities under the overall supervision of ICEVI.
5. In both Ethiopia and Mozambique, the
existing focus countries in the Africa region, awareness about EFA-VI Campaign
is on the rise and additional children with visual impairment are enrolled in
schools.
6. Teacher preparation, teaching Mathematics
and Science and Low Vision continue to be the areas of concern for the
mainstreaming of children with visual impairment and therefore, the regional
strategies should address these challenges.
There are opportunities for working with other international initiatives
including that of the World Braille Foundation to strengthen the EFA-VI
Campaign activities in the region.
7. Special focus is necessary to strengthen
the EFA-VI campaign in the Francophone countries of the Africa region.
8. Presently, the following countries have
emerged as potential focus countries for EFA-VI because they are satisfying
most of the criteria set forth by the then Global Task Force of ICEVI:
Uganda,
Kenya, Mozambique, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mali, Malawi, Rwanda, and Burkina Faso
ICEVI will soon appoint a Regional Coordinator for
the EFA-VI Global Campaign and the above follow-up actions will be addressed to
expand ICEVI activities in general and the EFA-VI Global Campaign activities in
particular.
News from World
Blind Union
Maryanne Diamond, President, WBU
As
discussed in our last article to The Educator, one of our key initiatives is
related to the Employment of blind and partially sighted persons. Specifically,
we have developed strategies that seek to identify and remove barriers that
have traditionally kept the employment rate among blind and partially sighted
persons at very low levels. That
strategy includes four specific priorities to help advance this initiative:
collecting case studies and success stories of successfully employed persons;
documenting and sharing peer support and mentoring programs related to
employment; initiatives related to micro credit and income generating projects;
and developing a resource bank to include sharing of effective employment
program models.
We
are very pleased to inform you of progress that has been achieved in one of
these priority areas and to invite input and contributions from ICEVI members
that can contribute to this work.
The
WBU has been the recipient of a major grant from the Trillium Foundation. The Trillium Foundation is a foundation based
in Ontario, Canada and the grant we have been awarded will enable us to build
an employment resource bank on our website. This project was approved as a
collaborative effort with the CNIB (Canadian National Institute for the Blind)
and we will be working closely with the CNIB to identify resources, build the
website portal, and develop interactive tools for its use.
The
resource bank is intended to identify and include resources of interest to the
following constituents: blind and partially sighted job seekers; parents of
blind and partially sighted persons; educators, employment specialists,
rehabilitation service providers and potential employers. We hope to include a
range of resources that will provide specific tools to job seekers and those
who work with them. Our goal is to
provide information that will raise awareness about the capabilities of blind
and partially sighted persons and the types of work in which they are involved
along with a platform for information sharing and interaction. We will include information about traditional
types of employment, innovative employment opportunities and the wide range of
self-employment opportunities that individuals are involved in. In some cases
we will house resources on our website and in other cases we will provide links
to resources that are available and accessible.
This
is a two year project, with the first phase being a research phase. In the first phases we will determine what
resources and tools should be included in the site. These will, of course, be
tested for accessibility and, following the initial identification phase, the
site will be designed so that it provides maximum usability to our various
audiences. Subsequent phases include testing with various audiences,
translation into French, and testing and development of interactive tools
including social networking. The site will eventually be translated into
Spanish as well.
We
would very much value and welcome information about or contribution of
resources and tools that ICEVI members consider to be excellent and could add
value to our site. Please forward any
ideas, tools or resources that you have to Penny Hartin at penny.hartin@wbuoffice.org . We also welcome case studies of blind and
partially sighted persons in various types of work. Guidelines for these case
studies can be found on our website at: http://www.worldblindunion.org/en/our-work/campaigns/Pages/default.aspx
Your
help and input is very much appreciated. We will continue to keep you updated
on this important initiative in future issues of The Educator.
Using
Wisdom-Based Evidence to Guide Practice
Rashida Banerjee, Ph.D.
University of Northern Colorado, USA.
e-mail : Rashida.banerjee@unco.edu
What is
Evidence?
Increasingly, accountability systems around the
world require professionals to use “evidence-based” practices to improve
outcomes for children and youth with disabilities and their families. However,
great confusion exists as to the meaning and application of the term “evidence”
in evidence-based practices in special education. Traditionally evidence-based
practices have meant practices that are supported by findings from multiple,
high-quality, experimental research studies (Cook, Tankersley, Cook, &
Landrum, 2008). Lomas (2005) describes two concepts of evidence; (a) colloquial
[or wisdom-based] evidence, which focuses on relevant information at a more
personal and contextual level (e.g., experiential knowledge, societal values,
political judgment, resources, habits and tradition); and (b) scientific
evidence, which is derived from systematic, replicable and verifiable methods
of collecting information and facts that may be context-specific or context
free. Two separate sets of inquiry guide the search for these two concepts of
evidence: wisdom-based inquiry and knowledge-based inquiry (Maxwell, 1984).
However, more and more policy makers, practitioners, researchers, and families
tend to agree that the sheer pursuit of knowledge in a knowledge-based inquiry,
without addressing the political, personal, and social problems we encounter,
is not enough to provide effective and meaningful services to children and
youth with disabilities and their families. The value driven, wisdom-based
inquiry can be an effective method instead.
What is
Wisdom-Based Evidence?
Professionals in multiple fields have increasingly
recognized that “wisdom is a value-added process that is more robust than
aggregation and synthesis of research-based information alone” (Turnbull et
al., 2009, p. 54). Sternberg (2003) describes wisdom as:
the application of
successful intelligence and creativity as mediated by values toward the
achievement of a common good through a balance among (a) intrapersonal,
(b) interpersonal, and (c)
extrapersonal interests, over (a) short and (b) long terms, in order to achieve
a balance among (a) adaptation in existing environments, (b) shaping of
existing environments, and (c) selection
of new environments (p. 152).
The field of medicine has begun to recognize the
interdependence of professional wisdom and research evidence when providing
best medical services. For example, Sackett, Rosenberg, Gray, Haynes, and
Richardson (1996) state:
Good doctors use both
individual clinical expertise and the best available external evidence, and
neither alone is enough. Without clinical expertise, practice risks becoming
tyrannized by evidence, for even excellent external evidence may be
inapplicable to or inappropriate for an individual patient. Without current
best evidence, practice risks becoming rapidly out of date, to the detriment of
patients (p. 71).
In special education, particularly in early
intervention, there has also been a growing recognition of the professionals’
wisdom as a guiding mechanism when applying research-based evidence (e.g.,
Cook, Tankersley, & Hurjusola-Webb, 2008). Whitehurst (2002), former
director of the US Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences
and Assistant Secretary for the U.S. Department of Education, defines
evidence-based education as the “integration” of “professional wisdom” with
empirical evidence. He defines professional wisdom as “the judgment that
individuals acquire through experience” (pp.3-4). Buysse, Wesley, Snyder, and
Winton (2006) resonate this thought when they suggest that practicing
evidence-based early intervention involves a decision-making process that
integrates the best-available research evidence with family and practitioner
wisdom and values, and which considers characteristics, preferences, strengths,
and needs of child and family. Thus, it is through transparent, deliberative
processes amongst all stakeholders, utilizing experiential wisdom and expertise
of families and professionals, that we can identify the best evidence to guide
a specific practice, for a specific purpose, for a specific child or youth with
disabilities. In this paper, I present discussion on family and professional
wisdom and experiential knowledge as a source of evidence to guide effective
practice and policies for children with disabilities and their families.
Why is
Wisdom-Based Evidence Necessary?
In his farewell as the editor of Exceptional
Children, Graham (2010) muses that “way too much scholarship in special
education is of poor quality” (p. 390). He argues special education needs to
“systematically and progressively” shift the balance towards good
scholarship. In order to do that, the
federal funding agencies must shift their focus from large quantitative group
design studies to “competitions that allow for a greater range of research
topics and methodologies” (p. 391). Given the complexity and diversity of
special education topics and unique needs of students with disabilities,
further exacerbated by the lack of resources to conduct high-quality research,
there is a strong need to supplement research evidence with wisdom-based
evidence. Wisdom-based evidence is particularly useful to adapt local
circumstances and to “operate intelligently” in the many areas in which
scientific evidence is absent or incomplete (Whitehurst, 2002). Kavale and
Forness (1999) further state that,
A special education
student is quite likely to present problems for which scientific
generalizations, principles, and suppositions will not apply directly and must
be mediated through the teacher's own rendering of best practice. Therefore,
the creativity of the individual special education practitioner must not be
stifled because quality education for special education students will always be
based on the artful application of science (p. 1016).
Thus, optimal special education practices and
policies are those that integrate both research evidence and wisdom gathered
through professional or clinical experience.
Usefulness of wisdom-based evidence in developing
countries. In reference to health medicine, Santesso and Tugwell (2006) lament
that little money is spent on research into diseases affecting developing
countries. They further mention that there is a major gap between what is known
from research and what is done to apply it: the “know-do gap” or the knowledge
translation. This lack of application is particularly relevant in low- and
middle-income countries (LMICs), where there are limited and scarce resources.
Developing countries cannot afford to waste money and resources on a treatment
that is not effective; nor can they afford the costs when a treatment causes
harm.
A similar situation exists in education. Limited financial resources are available to
support research to develop effective scientific evidence based strategies,
particularly in LMICs. Teachers and related service professionals (such as
occupational therapists and speech therapists) across the world make valiant
efforts to support children and youth with disabilities despite limited
resources and other challenges (e.g., complexity and variability in child
characteristics). Most teachers and related professionals choose intervention
practices with considerable thought to bring about the desired positive
outcomes for children and youth. In
countries with fewer resources to fund large studies to gather scientific
evidence, the utilization of wisdom-based evidence becomes critical. Through a
deliberative process, a multi-disciplinary team consisting of professionals and
family members can use information from research studies conducted in other
countries, integrating it with their experience and professional expertise when
addressing their specific, local, circumstances and needs.
Usefulness of wisdom-based evidence for
low-incidence disabilities. During my
search using the key terms such as “wisdom-based evidence,” “communities of
practice,” “professional wisdom,” and so forth, paired with “vision
impairment,” “blind,” and “blindness” in major online databases such as Eric,
PsyInfo, Wilson, and Google Scholar, I found zero hits. A similar search
substituting the word “evidence” for “wisdom” resulted in a dearth of
information, suggesting that there is limited discussion in the field on what
constitutes “evidence.” I must add that
I am not an expert in literature on vision impairment and may have missed some
important key terms that may have broadened my search and provided me with
relevant literature.
Further, due to the smallness and heterogeneity of
the population in fields such as blindness and early intervention, most
research is conducted using single subject designs or qualitative research
design. While qualitative research
designs can provide useful insights into teaching and learning, they cannot
adequately determine whether or not a specific practice has caused the change
in child or youth outcomes. Similarly,
numerous systemic replications of single subject design studies are necessary
to conclude with any confidence that a specific practice has caused the change
in child or youth outcomes. Thus, given the challenges in identifying evidence
through high-quality, systemic, large randomized experimental studies in areas
such as early intervention and vision impairment, a clear understanding and use
of wisdom–based evidence is imperative. The use of professional wisdom can
further help to connect theory, research and practice and translate principles
into action.
How to
Collect and Use Effective Wisdom-based Evidence?
The professionals working directly with children
and youth with disabilities are guided by multiple information sources such as
policies, standards, position papers, published literature, university
professors, and text books that may suggest “evidence” to guide effective
practices. They understand the importance of individualization for each child
based on their strengths and needs. This is specifically true for professionals
working with children and youth with low-incidence disabilities—such as vision
impairment, hearing impairment, or multiple, severe disabilities. Given the urgent need across the world to
improve educational and developmental competency of children and youth with
disabilities, McGinn and Schiefelbein (2010) argue that practitioners and
researchers in underdeveloped and developing countries should “organize
themselves into teams to find and share research and experience based
information about factors that influence the quality of teaching” (p.431). The teams would compile
locally-developed knowledge about three topics: What teaching practices are
most effective in classrooms? How do teachers who use those practices learn
them? How and what should teacher training institutions teach teachers so that
they will use effective practices? Similar suggestions can be made for fields
of low-incidence disabilities such as vision impairment. Based on an extensive
literature search on the topic, below I suggest the use of wisdom-based action
and communities of practice to effectively collect and use wisdom-based
evidence.
Wisdom-Based
Action
Balance and action are the two key principles described
in the literature on wisdom (Turnbull et al., 2009). Balance involves balancing
both the “interests of different people” as well as “adaptation, shaping, and
selection of environments.” Action is the ultimate goal of wisdom. Wisdom-based
action involves: (a) engaging with trusted allies over time; (b) engaging with
best available research, most relevant experience, and most current policy; (c)
matching knowledge to be consistent with values, vision, previous experience,
and contextual factors (individual, family, service system, community); (d)
making wise, balanced and informed decisions that take into account long-term
and short-term issues; (e) acting on decisions and staying connected to trusted
allies (Turnbull et al., 2009).
Turnbull and colleagues (2009) further assert that
“knowledge, wisdom, and action are and should be linked; “wisdom-based action”
is our fundamental approach to knowledge translation. When discussing the
medical field, WHO (2005) describes knowledge translation as
the exchange, synthesis,
and ethically sound application of knowledge within a complex set of interactions among producers of knowledge and
relevant stakeholders to accelerate the capture of benefits of research through
improved health, more effective services and products, and a strengthened
health care system. (p. 2)
This definition can be easily applied to education.
In order to bridge the “know-do” gap in knowledge translation, the following
key recommendations emerged from my examination of the literature: (a) findings
from local research that takes into account specific local circumstances, needs
and resources is most likely to influence practice; (b) passive dissemination
of knowledge (e.g., through newsletters and other printed materials) is not as
effective in knowledge translation; more interactive strategies are necessary
(c) user-friendly access through innovative ways to knowledge and searchable
databases is necessary; (d) fostering knowledge translation through active and
timely consultation with others who have undergone similar experiences and have
successfully solved challenges; (e) a systemic evaluation and monitoring of
strategies that facilitate knowledge translation is necessary.
Some specific tools and strategies for effective
knowledge transfer that were suggested in the literature include: (a) Web 2.0
based socially mediated learning (Turnbull et al., 2009; for examples see the
section on Communities of Practice (CoP) below); (b) knowledge mapping at the
local and national level to identify potential opportunities and gaps within
the knowledge translation process by providing a picture of the knowledge
assets, their locations and flows in the system (WHO, 2006); (c) utilizing
knowledge brokers to synthesize, filter and share the research knowledge with
practitioners and policy makers and facilitate its implementation (Ward, House,
& Hamer, 2009).
Communities
of Practice
Communities of Practice (CoP) are another tool to
support creation, translation, and implementation of wisdom-based
evidence. CoP are defined as
groups of people who
share expertise and passion about a topic and interact on an ongoing basis to
further their learning in this domain. Communities of Practice members
typically solve problems, discuss insights and share information. Communities
of Practice also develop tools and frameworks that become part of a common
knowledge of the community. And over time, these mutual interactions and
relationships build up a shared body of knowledge and a sense of identity.
(Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002, p.4).
Three key elements for successful CoP are
engagement, imagination, and alignment (Cashman, Linehan, & Rosser,
2007). Members of a CoP actively and
meaningfully engage with each other on a regular basis, share a common concern,
and develop and practice a shared “repertoire of resources” to address the
common recurring concern. CoP have been actively used in areas such as poverty
reduction (e.g., United Nations Development Programme), environmental issues
(e.g., The IEEE Committee on Earth Observation), and public health (e.g,.Center
for Disease Control and Prevention).
CoPs are beginning to be used in the field of special education. Some CoPs in the field of education in the US
are:
a) Early Childhood Community, http://community.fpg.unc.edu/;
b) Teacher-to-Teacher Forum of
the National Association of Special Education Teachers http://www.naset.org/teacherforum.0.html;
c) Beach Center on
Disability's Family Support CoP http://www.facebook.com/pages/Beach-Center-Family-Support-Community/63233819012?v=wall&viewas=0;
d) The Education CoP at the
Public Performance Measurement and Reporting Network http://www.ppmrn.net/communities-of-practice/education/
; and
e) International Society on
Early Intervention, http://depts.washington.edu/isei/
.
For more information on building and maintaining
Communities of Practice, read Building Communities of Practice (Serrat, 2008)
available at http://www.adb.org/Documents/Information/Knowledge-Solutions/Building-Communities-Practice.pdf and Communities of practice: A new approach
to solving complex educational problems (Cashman, Linehan, & Rosser, 2007)
available at http://www.nasdse.org/Portals/0/Documents/Download%20Publications/PNA-0778.pdf
.
Conclusion
In this paper I have discussed the importance of
evidence that is gathered from a triangulation of research based inquiry and
professional and family wisdom gathered through systematic, deliberative
process. As in other fields, there is a growing recognition amongst all
stakeholders--policy makers, researchers, practitioners, and family members--of
the use of wisdom in practicing evidence-based strategies in special education
to improve outcomes for children and youth with disabilities. The lack of
resources in developing countries and the complexity and challenges of serving
children and youth with low incidence disabilities limit the collection and use
of systemic, large experimental research findings from traditional research.
The experiential wisdom of professionals and families can guide the
implementation of practices where research-based evidence is non-existent or
limited. Sharing of wisdom requires a culture of interdependence. A number of
strategies and tools are being developed and used to facilitate acquisition and
transfer of knowledge amongst all stake holders in order to appropriately
utilize the evidence gathered. As in
other fields, an ongoing dialogue is necessary in the field of vision impairment
to define wisdom-based evidence and suggest strategies for possible
interventions in order to facilitate successful and effective implementation of
wisdom. Using wisdom and professional experience and collaborating with
families in identifying and implementing best practices is vital.
References
Buysse, V.,
Wesley, P. W., Snyder, P., & Winton, P. J. (2006). Evidence-based practice:
What does it really mean for the early childhood field? Young Exceptional
Children, 9(4), 2-11.
Cashman, J.,
Linehan, P., & Rosser, M. (2007). Communities of Practice: A new approach
to solving complex educational problems. Alexandria, VA: National Association
of State Directors of Special Education. Retrieved June 11, 2011, from http://www.nasdse.org/Portals/0/Documents/Download%20Publications/PNA-0778.pdf
Cook, B. G.,
Tankersley, M., Cook. L., & Landrum, T. J. (2008). Evidence-based practices
in special education: Some practical considerations. Intervention in School and
Clinic, 44, 69-75. doi: 10.1177/1053451208321452.
Cook, B. G.,
Tankersley, M., & Harjusola-Webb, S. (2008). Evidence-based special
education and professional wisdom: Putting it all together. Intervention in
School and Clinic, 44,105–111.doi: 10.1177/1053451208321452.
Graham, S.
(2010). With a little help from my friends (and Mark Twain too). Exceptional
Children, 76, 389-393.
Kavale, K.
A., & Forness, S. R. (1999). Effectiveness of special education. In C. R.
Reynolds & T. B. Gutkin (Eds.). The handbook of school psychology (3rd ed.,
pp. 984–1024). New York: Wiley.
Lomas, J.
(2005, October). Defining evidence and its role in guiding policy and practice.
Paper presented at 2005 WHO meeting ‘Knowledge Translation in Global Health.’
Maxwell, N.
(1984). From knowledge to wisdom: A
revolution in the aims and methods of science. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
McGinn, N.
F., & Schiefelbein, E. (2010). Learning how teachers learn in
underdeveloped countries. Prospects, 40, 431–445. doi:
10.1007/s11125-010-9167-1
Sackett, D.
L., Richardson, W. S., Rosenberg, W., & Haynes, R. B. (1997).
Evidence-based medicine: How to practice and teach EBM. New York: Churchill
Livingstone.
Santesso,
N., & Tugwell, P. (2006). Knowledge translation in developing countries.
The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 26 (1), DOI:
10.1002/chp.
Serrat, O.
(2008). Building Communities of Practice. Asian Development Bank. Manila:
Author.
Sternberg,
R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Turnbull,
A., Summers, J. A., Gotto, G., Stowe, M., Beauchamp, D., Klein, S., Kyzar, K,
Turnbull, H. R. & Zuna, N. (2009). Fostering wisdom-based action through
Web 2.0 Communities of Practice. Infants & Young Children, 22, 54-62.
Thang, S.
M., Hall, C., Murugaiah, P., & Azman, H. (2011) Creating and maintaining
online communities of practice in Malaysian Smart Schools: challenging
realities. Educational Action Research, 19, 87-105, DOI:
10.1080/09650792.2011.547724
Ward, V. L.,
House, A. O., & Hamer, S. (2009). Knowledge brokering: The missing link in
the evidence to action chain? Evidence and Policy: A Journal of Research,
Debate, and Practice, 5, 3, 267-279. doi:10.1332/174426409X463811.
Wenger, E.,
McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.
Whitehurst,
G. J. (2002, October). Evidence-based education (EBE). Paper presented at the
Student Achievement and School Accountability Conference. Retrieved June 11,
2011, from www2.ed.gov/offices/OERI/presentations/evidencebase.ppt
World Health
Organization. (2005). Proceedings from Bridging the “Know-Do” gap: Meeting on
knowledge translation in global health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Available at: http://www.who.int/kms/about/strategy/kms_strategy.pdf
. Retrieved June 15, 2011.
As
an editor I view my role as being a facilitator, connecting authors who are
interested in feedback with expert peer reviewers. While the process can at times be difficult,
it has also proven to be a time tested approach that serves authors and readers
of professional journals. I wish all of
you good luck with the process and hope that my comments have been helpful and
motivating.
Adam Wilton, MA and M. Cay Holbrook, Ph.D.
The University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, CANADA
e-mail : awilton@interchange.ubc.ca ; cay.holbrook@ubc.ca
Several systematic literature reviews and meta-analyses have been published
in the field of visual impairment and blindness in recent years. Topics range
from literacy for individuals with visual impairments to orientation and
mobility skills for students with multisensory impairments (Ferrell, Mason,
Young, & Cooney, 2006; Parker, 2009). These articles are illuminating in
that they provide a systematic overview of the research in a particular domain
or topic area. The purpose of this article is similar, albeit with a far
broader scope. Rather than focusing on a particular topic or line of research,
this article provides an overview of published research in journals devoted to
the education and development of individuals with visual impairments over the
past three years.
Criteria for
Inclusion
Prior to the outset of the review, a number of inclusionary criteria were
established for both the journals surveyed and the articles that were
examined. Journals must have published
at least one issue since January 2008. Submissions to the journal must be
subject to a peer-review process, with author and reviewer identities kept
confidential throughout this process. Journals were accessed online and all
were published in English. All journals included in the review (n=5) draw from
research in the social sciences and are particularly committed to understanding
and supporting the development of individuals with visual impairments (see
Table 1 for a list of journals included in this review). Excluded from this
review were ophthalmological journals and publications in the vision sciences.
Table 1: List of publications
included in the current review
|
Name of
Publication |
Frequency
of Publication |
Number
of Issues (Jan
2008 – July 2011) |
|
British Journal of
Visual Impairment |
3 times/year |
11 |
|
Insight: Research and Practice
in Visual Impairment and Blindness |
Quarterly |
12 |
|
Journal of Blindness
Innovation and Research |
Online |
2 |
|
Journal of Visual
Impairment & Blindness |
Monthly |
42 |
|
RE:View |
Quarterly |
1* |
*
Publication ceased in January 2008.
Consistent with the criteria established for journals, specific criteria
were applied to each article. Articles must have been published in the last 43
months (January 2008 to July 2011). The scope of the review was selected so
that the most current trends in the research literature could be identified.
This time span was determined jointly by the authors, both of whom are avid
consumers of research literature in the field of visual impairment. In order to
ascertain a more accurate portrayal of research trends, empirically based
research articles were reviewed. Thus, articles detailing original research,
systematic reviews of the literature, and meta-analyses were included in the
review. Articles featuring suggestions for practice or position/thought papers were
also included. Excluded from the current review were book reviews, letters to
the editor(s), and editors' commentaries.
Method
Articles were reviewed from a total of 68 journal issues. Descriptive
data on each of these articles were gathered and organized under several
thematic headings to facilitate aggregation and comparisons within the dataset.
Descriptive data on article content were gathered under the following thematic
headings. When several headings were applicable to one article, that article was
tallied under each relevant heading.
Age of
Participants
The age of the participants in each research article was noted by
assigning the article to one or more of three categories: early childhood
(birth to 5 years), school age (6-20 years), and adulthood (21+ years). If the
article did not report on original research, but did explicitly focus on one or
more of these age groups, this too was noted. If the research did not directly
collect data on the functioning of individuals with visual impairments, age
information was not noted for that study. For example, if a study collected
data on the competencies of teachers of students with visual impairments, age
data would not be recorded using one of the three aforementioned categories.
Research
Environment
The context for the research was tallied under one or more of the
following six categories: home, school, community, work, clinic, and “not
applicable” (N/A). To be counted in one of these categories, original research
must have been based in that environment. In the case of practice reports and
theory papers, the focal environment was noted (e.g., a report of new practice
at a low vision rehabilitation clinic). If an article did not explicitly apply
to at least one environment, it was tallied as “not applicable” (e.g., a survey
of global self-worth of adolescents with visual impairments).
Curriculum Areas
Specific categories were assigned to classify the instructional foci of
the articles under review. Instruction in both the core and expanded core curricula
were considered. The core curriculum refers to those areas of instruction that
are foundational to the education of all students (i.e., mathematics, language
arts, science, etc.). The expanded core curriculum refers to nine
disability-specific content areas that would typically be acquired incidentally
by sighted students (Hatlen, 1996; Wolffe, Sacks, Corn, Erin, Huebner, &
Lewis, 2002).
Students with visual impairments are believed to require consistent,
direct instruction in each of these areas from qualified professionals (e.g.,
independent living skills, self-determination, orientation and mobility, etc.)
(Hatlen, 2009). Based on the authors' collective knowledge of the research
literature, certain curricular areas were removed from their aggregate
categories and tallied separately (i.e., literacy, orientation and mobility,
and assistive technology).
Methods of Data
Collection
Eleven methods of data collection and types of non-empirical publications
(e.g., practice report) were identified (see Table 2 for a complete list). It
is worth noting that the authors of articles in the “authentic assessment”
category used some method or protocol developed to serve the purposes of data
collection. Thus, these data collection methods were essentially authentic to
the research context (e.g., a list of spelling words in a study of the spelling
accuracy of braille-reading students). This category was distinguished from the
“formal assessment tool” category in that articles in this category employed
some formal, commercially available tool that was originally created and
published outside the context of the study in question.
Table 2: Number of articles per
method of data collection in the tallied articles.
|
Method
of Data Collection |
Number
of Articles |
|
Questionnaire/
Survey |
94 |
|
Authentic
Assessment |
70 |
|
Formal
Assessment Tool |
57 |
|
Practice
Report |
65 |
|
Position/Thought
Paper |
48 |
|
Interviews |
37 |
|
Literature
Review |
31 |
|
Observation |
31 |
|
Case
Study |
30 |
|
Focus
Group |
6 |
|
Diary/Journal |
5 |
Additional
Categories
Four other categories were added to the review when it became clear that
articles with adult participants could not be validly tallied under the
“Curriculum” headings discussed above. Thus, “vocational rehabilitation,”
“psychosocial development,” “cognition,” and “multiple disabilities” were added
to the review matrix. “Vocational rehabilitation” refers to articles that
examined strategies and tools that allow individuals with visual impairments to
cope with the demands of the workplace (Ponchilla & Ponchilla, 1996).
“Psychosocial development” refers to articles examining the psychological and
social impacts of visual impairment (e.g., a quality of life survey).
“Cognition” refers to research that examined one or more cognitive processes
(e.g., mental rotation) and documented any differences between a sample of
participants with visual impairments and sighted controls. Finally, “multiple
disabilities” refers to any article that was purposefully devoted to
understanding and supporting the development of individuals with visual and
multiple impairments.
Results
A total of 394 articles were reviewed and descriptive information was
tallied. Articles reported on data gathered on seven continents, by researchers
working in 29 different countries. The figures in this section outline the
tallies for each of the categories detailed in the Methods section.
Age of
Participants
Table 3 illustrates the age of participants in the tallied articles.
Research with samples of adults with visual impairments was most prevalent,
followed closely by research with samples of school-aged children and
adolescents, and then early childhood research.
Table 3: Number of articles per age category
of tallied articles.
|
Age
Range |
Number
of Articles |
|
Early
Childhood(0-5 years) |
40 |
|
School
Age(6-21 years) |
167 |
|
Adulthood(21+
years) |
172 |
Of the 40 articles devoted to early childhood, 24 also included
school-aged populations. Thirty-two articles included both school-aged and
adult populations. Four articles included participants across all age
categories.
Research
Environment
Table 4 illustrates the environments in which the articles in the current
review were situated.
Table 4: Number of articles per
research environment of tallied articles
|
Environment |
Number
of Articles |
|
School |
155 |
|
Community |
71 |
|
Home |
53 |
|
Clinic |
51 |
|
Work |
20 |
|
N/A |
89 |
|
Home and Community |
21 |
|
Community and School |
14 |
|
Home and School |
14 |
|
Community and Work |
8 |
|
School and Work |
8 |
|
Home and Work |
4 |
Fourteen articles gathered data in, or were relevant to, both home and
school environments. Fourteen articles were also relevant to both community and
school environments. However, the most common combination in the current data
set was articles situated in both home and community environments (n=21).
Curriculum Area
Table 5 contains data on the curricular areas of focus of the articles
within the current sample.
Table 5: Number of articles per
curricular area in tallied articles
|
Curriculum
Area |
Number
of Articles |
|
Literacy |
89 |
|
Other
expanded core curriculum |
85 |
|
Orientation
and Mobility |
71 |
|
Assistive
Technology |
48 |
|
Other
core curriculum |
33 |
|
N/A |
102 |
Within the curriculum areas under review, two combinations occurred most
frequently. Assistive technology articles incorporating literacy or orientation
and mobility components were tallied more often than any other combinations of
curricular areas (n=16).
Additional
Categories
Table 6 contains data on additional categories within the current sample
of tallied journal articles.
Table 6: Number of articles per
additional category in tallied articles.
|
Additional
Category |
Number
of Articles |
|
Multiple
Disabilities |
64 |
|
Psychosocial
Development |
41 |
|
Vocational
Rehabilitation |
22 |
|
Cognition |
25 |
Within the vocational rehabilitation category, 19 articles examined
samples of adult participants while the remainder was devoted to school-aged
samples. Thirty articles on psychosocial development included adult samples, 11
with school-aged samples, and one in early childhood. Sixteen articles on
cognitive processes referred to adult samples, 13 to school-aged samples, and 4
to early childhood samples. Finally, 21 articles devoted to individuals with
visual and multiple disabilities used adult samples, 36 used school-aged
samples, and 18 used early childhood samples. In many articles, samples
included more than one age category.
The intent of this review is to provide the reader with an overview of
published, peer-reviewed research in the field of visual impairment and
blindness, and a number of interesting trends appeared in the data. For
example, the number of articles devoted to the study of individuals with visual
and multiple disabilities increased over the 43-month period under review. In
2008, 9 articles devoted to individuals with visual and multiple disabilities
were published. That number climbed to 19 in 2009, and to 25 in 2010. As of July 2011, 11 articles advancing
research and practice in the area of visual and multiple disabilities have been
published. This is a promising trend, given the increasing number of
individuals with visual and multiple disabilities served by professionals
today.
Methods of Data
Collection
Table 2 displayed data on the various methods of data collection employed
by researchers in the tallied articles. Questionnaires or surveys were the most
prevalent method of data collection in the current review (n=94). However, a number of authors employed more
performance-based methods of assessment. For example, formal assessment tools
(n=57) and/or authentic assessment practices (n=70) appear often in the sample.
Limitations and
Caveats
While this review provides the reader with a succinct “snapshot” of the
nature of research in the field of visual impairment and blindness, a number of
limitations and caveats should be made explicit. First, the review process for
this article was not subject to reliability testing (e.g., inter-rater
reliability assessment). Therefore, there is no indication that the categories
used in this review would be consistently applied to the tallied articles
across independent raters. Second, while this review is comprehensive of the
journals listed in Table 1 over the past 43 months (January 2008 – July 2011),
it is not a systematic review. Analysis of individual articles was cursory, and
so the findings of this review should only serve as a broad indication of the
peer-reviewed research published in English in the field of visual impairment
and blindness in recent years.
Conclusions
Despite these limitations, the current review provides some insight into
research activities over the past three years. For example, while there is a
clear reliance on survey/questionnaire methods of data collection, there are
nearly as many studies employing some form of direct assessment of
participants. Thus, it is clear that research in this field relies on a variety
of tools and methods of gathering empirical data. It is also important to
highlight the number of practice reports and position/thought papers published
since 2008. While there is a great deal of empirical research, there are also
many authors contributing new theory and practice to the field. Taken together,
this review provides an indication of the great variety and depth of current
research in the field of visual impairment and blindness, from all corners of
the world.
References
Ferrell, K. A., Mason,
L., Young, J., & Cooney, J. (2006).
Forty years of literacy research in blindness and visual impairment
[Technical Report]. Greeley, CO: University of Northern Colorado, National
Center on Low-Incidence Disabilities. Available at
http://nclid.unco.edu/rch/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=650&Itemid=2
Hatlen, P. (1996). The
core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students, including those with
additional disabilities. RE:view, 28, 25-32.
Hatlen, P. (2009). The
opportunity to be equal, the right to be different. Austin, TX: The Texas
School for the Blind and Visually Impaired.
Parker, A. T. (2009).
Orientation and mobility with persons who are deaf-blind: An initial
examination of single-subject design research. Journal of Visual Impairment
& Blindness, 103, 6, 372-377.
Ponchillia, P. E., &
Ponchillia, S. V. (1996). Foundations of rehabilitation teaching with persons
who are blind or visually impaired. New York, NY: AFB Press.
Wolffe, K. E., Sacks, S.
Z., Corn, A. L., Erin, J. N., Huebner, K. M., & Lewis, S. (2002). Teachers
of students with visual impairments: What are they teaching? Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness,
96, 292-304.
Research Around the World
Regional Chairs were asked to identify the
research projects being carried out in their ICEVI region. While the list below
is not exhaustive, it does begin to give us a feel for the amount of research
going on around the world.
AUSTRALIA
Australian Childhood Vision Impairment Register (RIDBC)
Sue Silveira ( sue.silveira@ridbc.org.au ) is the
JAFF Research fellow, Renwick Centre, Royal Institute for Deaf & Blind
Children (RIDBC). Sue is managing a project called the Australian Childhood
Vision Impairment Register (ACVIR), which gathers data on children across
Australia with vision impairment. It can be accessed online through the VI
Family Network website: www.vifamilynetwork.org.au
. This website also has a repository of low vision resources, an upcoming
events section, an online parent forum, and the organization's quarterly
reports.
CERA Research Project: Impact of Vision Impairment for Education of
Young People
The Centre for Eye Research Australia and
Jennifer Hassell are currently conducting research assessing the impact of
vision impairment on young people. The researchers survey the children when
they visit their schools to conduct routine functional visual assessment. The
first survey is conducted when a child is identified as visually impaired, and
the second a year later after the student has received intervention services.
The researchers are preparing to conduct their first post intervention survey.
If there are any questions regarding this process, please contact Annette
Godfrey-Magee or Marion Blazé (Statewide Vision Resource Centre) on (03) 9841
0807.
GraVVITAS Monash University / Department of Education and Early
Childhood Development (Victoria) / Catholic Education Office / Vision Australia
/ jTribe
The project will develop a new approach to
the presentation of graphics and other 2D information to blind students, using
the Apple iPad extended with audio and haptic feedback. The new iPad techniques
will allow the student to interactively control the level of detail and modify
or annotate the graphic. This has the potential to address the drawbacks of the
current method of producing tactile graphics, which is expensive,
time-consuming, and static. The project includes extensive evaluation of the
approach in the classroom.
Equity And Access For Students With Vision Impairment: Where Is PNG
Now And Where Should It Be In 2015?
James Aiwa ( Doctor of Education student,
School of Education, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia -
email: james.aiwa@my.jcu.edu.au )
and Associate Professor Paul Pagliano ( School of Education, James Cook
University, Townsville, Qld 4811, Australia - email: paul.pagliano@jcu.edu.au ) conducted
a mixed-methods research study in Papua New Guinea (PNG) on equity and access
for students with vision impairment (VI).
The preliminary results of a survey of the
country’s 124 Special Education Resource Centre (SERC) teachers indicate the
majority of the 366 students who receive specialist services are legally blind
Braille readers, and that students with low vision are seriously neglected.
Teachers in the survey identified these significant problems: negative
attitudes of parents and regular teachers, an over-focus on disability rather
than student ability, the need for specialist pre-service and in-service
training, and a lack of resources. The authors recommend that the National
Department of Education: (a) make a firm commitment to achieve equity and
access for all children; (b) identify, assess, and support all children with
VI; and (c) provide pre- and in-service training and material resources.
INDIA
A Study of the Concerns of Primary School Teachers Regarding the
Integration of Students with Disabilities into Their Regular Classroom Programs
in Ahmedabad
Dr. Rina Niyogi Shah ( rinaniyogi@gmail.com ) conducted her
doctoral research on the concerns of primary school teachers in Ahmedabad
regarding the integration of students with disabilities into their regular
classroom programs. Her objectives were: (a) to identify these teachers’
concerns; (b) to determine if there are significant relationships between these
concerns and selected factors in the teachers’ personal and professional
backgrounds and experiences; and (c) to identify strategies to address these
concerns. The findings revealed that teachers were likely to have a
significantly higher level of concern about integrated education if they were:
(a) female; or (b) lacking a special education qualification; or (c) teaching
in classes with more than 20 students.
UNITED STATES
Followup on Braille Babies Playgroup and Parent Information Seminars
Kimberly Avila ( kavila@salus.edu ), doctoral student at
George Mason University, and National Leadership Consortium in Sensory
Disabilities Fellow has developed a Braille Babies project to facilitate
pre-reading braille skills in young children. She includes activities for
parents using items around the house, and with toys readily available at local
stores. Her groups have been meeting
since 2005, and based upon parents’ feedback, she has been integrating the most
helpful, easy-to-implement strategies and effective tasks into the program. She
will soon write an article reporting on the outcome of this pre-braille
learning program.
Considerate Practices for Early Intervention Service
Kimberly Avila ( kavila@salus.edu ), doctoral student at
George Mason University, and National Leadership Consortium in Sensory
Disabilities Fellow, has surveyed a group of parents from the March of Dimes
funded organization “Preemies Today” in order to identify best practices for early
intervention service providers. Ideal practices are considerate of the
multitude of emotional, medical, and developmental needs experienced by
families with an extremely premature infant. Many parents with infants with
blindness or visual impairment participated. Kimberly has presented the B/VI
comments and perspectives to a professional conference in Virginia last March
and is organizing the data and comments for a research article.
A Brief Primer of Research Terms
Editor’s Note:
Included in this section
are some common research terms that are important to understand when reading
research reports in journals in visual impairment. This is not a comprehensive list, rather, a
list of selected terms that may be commonly used in the literature. Each term
is presented with a brief definition and an example of how you might see the
term applied in research in our field.
Action Research
The term “Action Research”
refers to evaluative procedures used by practitioners to systematically examine
their own practice for the purpose of improving practice or communicating about
the effectiveness of a strategy. Typically, in education, teachers who are
researching their own practice conduct “action research”. Action research is
commonly used in the social sciences and encourages practitioners to be
reflective and engage in scholarship.
This is particularly important in the field of visual impairment because
there is a great need for collecting evidence about the effectiveness of our
practice and there are few researchers conducting formal research.
Case Study
Many research studies in
the area of visual impairment can be considered “case studies,” which closely
examine one or more “cases”. A case can
be defined as a person or people, an organization or group. Case study research
typically involves several research methods (questionnaires, interviews,
observations).
Confidentiality/Anonymity
One of the requirements for
ethical approval of research is the assurance of confidentiality and/or anonymity
for participants. If confidentiality and anonymity cannot be assured,
participants must be informed that their identities might be evident to the
consumers of the research report. Note
that some research can assure confidentiality but cannot assure anonymity.
Dependent Variables/Independent Variables
Most people learn about
dependent variables and independent variables during their first exposure to
experimental design, but it can be hard to remember the definitions. The dependent variable refers to what is
being measured. The independent variable refers to factors that are being
manipulated by the researcher. The
independent variable is hypothesized to have an impact on the dependent
variable.
Descriptive Research
Most studies use descriptive
research in some way. This term refers
to information that is observed or gathered about the nature of a person, group
of persons or organization that merely describes characteristics without any
attempt to manipulate. When conducting research related to individuals with
visual impairments, common descriptive data includes the individual’s level of
sight and the cause of the visual impairment, as well as gender and age.
Exploratory Research
This term refers to a broad
category of research that explores phenomena in an open-ended way with the goal
of understanding and creating hypotheses as opposed to testing a
hypothesis. This type of research is
used when there is a need to understand more about the problem in some cases
because of limited existing information. In many cases it is the first research
that is done on a problem or issue, in an attempt to define a research plan for
the future.
Focus Groups
One popular qualitative
research method is the use of focus groups. The purpose of a focus group is to
gather information in an interactive manner that allows members of the group to
hear differing opinions and reflect on the comments of others. Focus groups are
typically used when the questions being studied are not controversial or
confidential.
Grounded Theory
Many research methods are
designed to test a hypothesis that has a theoretical base. Grounded Theory
Methodology, on the other hand, uses case studies, observations, interviews and
other data collection techniques to support a researcher in developing a
theory. In other words, grounded theory
builds a theory rather than tests a theory.
Informed Consent
In order to protect the
rights of human subjects, most professional journals today require that a
behavioural ethics board approve the research. Universities have institutional
boards that typically issue certificates of approval that indicate that the
research has been reviewed for ethical practice. One key piece of this is a
process to obtain informed consent from all study participants. In obtaining
informed consent, researchers should ensure that there is no coercion for
agreeing to participate in the research and that all written documents (e.g.,
the informed consent letter) is fully accessible to participants.
Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research
Research methods can be
broadly placed into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. Complex
examination of an issue may include research methods that are both quantitative
and qualitative. The differences between quantitative and qualitative research
lie in both the nature of the research and the way that research results can be
used.
Quantitative research is
traditional scientific methodology that tests pre-determined hypotheses using
formal statistical analysis. Through adherence to requirements for research
design including number of research participants, conclusions drawn based on
the results of quantitative research may be generalizable.
Qualitative research, on
the other hand, approaches research questions through analysis of observations,
opinions, interviews or descriptions of phenomena. Because qualitative research does not rely on
statistical analysis of data, the same requirements for sample size and
randomization of treatment do not exist.
Therefore, in fields such as visual impairment, qualitative research
methodology alone, or in combination with quantitative methods are valuable
research tools.
Reliability
The term “reliability” is
used to indicate consistency of results.
Let’s consider the example of a researcher who is conducting an
assessment on functional vision using a specific instrument or measurement. In
order for this assessment to be valuable, the instrument that is being used
must be reliable. A reliable assessment produces consistent results.
Validity
The term “validity” is used
to describe the extent to which components of a research study and our
conclusions based on the results of our research are determined to be accurate
or true.
*****