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INTRODUCTION
In the same year, 1982, as the U.N. published their World Action Programme in which they stressed the importance of working with families of disabled persons, early interventions teams for families with disabled children were created in Belgium. Teams of medical specialists, psychologists, speech therapists, social workers and fysiotherapists started to support families with disabled babies or toddlers in home-based programmes.
As a rehabilitation centre for children with special needs, we were involved in a team of early intervention for sensory handicapped infants and toddlers. We were all convinced of a family-centered approach and the fact that parents are the first and most important educators. So, we started to involve parents in our work with young children. We were all trained in child-directed therapies focusing on the child's disabilities. Different times a week home visits were scheduled or parents came to the rehabilitation centre to watch and learn what to do to stimulate their child in different developmental area's.
Besides working with sensory handicapped infants and toddlers, we were also involved in special needs education for children with learning disabilities between the ages of 6 and 12 years. Also with these children we were used to work in a child-directed way focusing on the learning disabilities. In spite of our and parents' efforts in using adapted programmes to achieve cognitive and academic skills, we were regularly confronted with results far below our expectations. A lot of these children were not able to learn by themselves. They were used to be directed and trained by others. By training, exercising and focusing on the skills they had to achieve, we stimulated them to become passive learners. From these children with learning disabilities we learned that long-term effects were only possible if we could stimulate them to become independent and active learners.
TOWARDS A MODEL OF INDEPENDENT LEARNING
To stimulate children to become independent learners means that we are focusing on qualities that will stimulate children to try to obtain skills by themself : to train themself instead of being trained.
Based on our daily work with
children with learning disabilities, we developed a model to enhance independent
learning.
Figure 1: A model to enhance independent learning
In this model independent learning is based on two gaugers: a cognitive gauger and an affective gauger. The cognitive gauger refers to problem-solving skills and cognitive basic functions necessary to turn an experience into a source of learning by relating, labeling, comparing, grouping, categorizing, and giving meaning to the present experience as it relates to former ones (Feuerstein e.a., 1988). We have united these skills and basic functions in the concept ‘thinking style'. The concept ‘thinking style' refers to the way in which the child thinks when learning or solving problems. The affective gauger refers to self-confidence and feelings of competence.
Common to both gaugers is that their developments are based on the educational context of the child, especially on the educator-child relationship. The cognitive basic functions are the product of a typical form of adult-child interaction, which Feuerstein e.a. (1988) refer to as Mediated Learning Experience (MLE). Also self-confidence and feelings of competence are developed on behalf of a typical adult-child interaction.
In this paper we will focus
on the development of the affective gauger of independent learning. Refering
to the developmental model of Riksen-Walraeven we will demonstrate that
the early parent-child interaction is the first and most important context
to develop self-confidence. We will describe how self-confidence is feeded
in through typical interactional features during the first years of life.
THE RIKSEN-WALRAEVEN MODEL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
The purpose of the model
discussed here is to understand a certain aspect of human development:
resilience. Riksen-Walraeven (1989) considers resilience to be the reflection
of certain expectations that a person has with respect to himself and others.
She claims that resilience as a personal dimension plays an important role
in the realisation of personal potential in the course of life and in dealing
with stress. According to her, resilience is also closely linked to personal
well-being. For this reason Riksen-Walraeven believes that an understanding
of the development of this personal dimension is relevant for those who
are concerned with the development of children (Riksen-Walraeven 1989).
Figure 2: Transactional model for the development of expectations and resilience in relation to social support (Riksen-Walraeven, 1989, p17).
The above model is divided into three layers. Central on the middle level is the development of expectations with respect to the availability of others (confidence) on the one hand, and the development of expectations with respect to one's own effectiveness (self-confidence) on the other. Riksen-Walraeven (1989) claims that both these expectations form the basis for resilient behaviour. The arrows that go from the top to the middle level in the model indicate the hypothesis that these two central expectations develop under the influence of the social support that a child experiences from birth in its interaction with the people who are important to it.
The lower section of the model represents the behaviour level. This section is subdivided into two parts. The upper part contains the general behaviour characteristic of resilience, which is defined as the capacity to respond flexibly and tenaciously, especially in problem situations. In the lower part of this section are the central developmental tasks that a person is confronted with in the course of his development. According to Riksen-Walraeven (1989) the quality of the solution in a developmental task is an important index of personal development. The arrows that go from the middle to the bottom, represent the hypothesis that personal resilience is, at any stage of life, a reflection of the two central expectations. The arrows pointing upwards from the behaviour to the expectation level indicate that the quality of the solution to the tasks has a feedback effect on both expectations. Riksen-Walraeven claims that expectations give rise to a behaviour that by its effect reinforces the expectations. As a result, in her opinion, the feedback from the behaviour level to the expectation level will as a rule increase the stability of the expectations.
At the top of the model, above the first level, Riksen-Walraeven refers to possible stress that can have an influence on the social support of children and which can therefore strongly influence the development of the child.
In the above model the two central expectations, confidence and self-confidence, that lie at the basis of resilience are formed under the influence of social support. Riksen-Walraeven (1989) cites the experience of others being aware of the signals and needs of children and responding sensitively to them as being the most important element in social development. She claims that on the basis of these experiences the expectation grows of being able to go to others for help and having control of the situation. In this model the most important factor in the development of confidence and self-confidence is "Being alert to the signals and needs of children and responding sensitively to them", certainly in the first few years of their lives.
TOWARDS AN EARLY INTERVENTION MODEL TO DEVELOP INDEPENDENT LEARNING
Based on the model of independent
learning and the developmental model of Riksen-Walraeven we claim that
an early intervention programme supporting parents in adopting a sensitive
and responsive interaction style will stimulate the child to become an
independent learner in its later life.
Instead of stimulating the
visually impaired infant in its cognitive, communicative, language and
movement development, we involved parents and children in relationship
play to stimulate sensitive responsiveness in parents.
The relationship play is
based on Sherborne's Developmental Movement programme.
Sherborne (1989,1990) distinguishes
three kinds of relationship games:
1. "With" relationships
involve partners in caring, containing and supporting activities. The adult
supports the child to experience joyful movements; he has to adjust to
the needs and feelings of the child and when the child gives his weight,
he is gaining confidence in the adult. When the child begins to respond
to the movement play and initiates new ways of playing, the adult imitates
the child's initiations and feeds it back to the child. Through these careful
sensitive reactions of the adult, the child gains self-confidence. A two-way
play or reciprocal play can begin. Partners can reverse roles so that the
child can learn to look after and be responsible for another person, even
an adult.
Some activities :
- Containing and supporting
The adult sits behind the
child and makes a "house" using arms, legs, and trunk to contain the
child. The adult cradles
the younger and takes his weight as they sway from side to side
(Sherborne 1989)
- Rocking horses
Cradling from side to side
can be changed to rocking backwards and forwards. The adult sits
with the child between legs,
both facing forwards, and grasps the child under the knees. The
adult then tips back and
then forward. As the child finds it safe, the adult tips so far
back that the child is upside
down with feet in the air. (Sherborne, 1990)
- Aeroplanes
The adult lies face up with
legs bent up supporting the child's stomach and legs along the
shins, and holding the child
on the shoulders. The child is above the adult, facing down in a
flying position. The adult
moves his legs gently forwards and backwards. (Sherborne, 1990)
- Rolling
The adult sits with the child
lying across his thighs, and can then roll the child down to his
ankles, up to the adult's
nose, back to the thighs again.
2. "Against" relationships involve activities such as pushing over, testing a curled up parcel or testing each other's ability to stick to the floor. In all these activities the aim is to build up the child's strength, stability and to develop self-esteem. The child also concentrates on his own body energy. He has to unite and direct all his strength which requires focused attention and concentration. Last but not least, the child is stimulated to test the strength and stability of his partner. As opposed to winning, the child learns to control and adjust his own strength to the strength of his partner. He learns to be sensitive.
Some activities:
- Squashing
The adult lies on top of
and across the body of the child on the floor. The child is encouraged
to wriggle out from underneath
the adult's body. The adult only rests as much weight on the
child as the child can cope
with, and the child experiences great satisfaction and a sense of
achievement on escaping.
(Sherborne, 1990)
- Rocks
The child sits with knees
bent up and feet apart and "sticks" to the floor using hands and feet.
The adult tests this "rock"
by pushing gently on the knees and then the back, strengthening
the child's ability to be
stable and strong (Sherborne, 1989)
3. "Shared" relationships are symmetric relationships. They require simultaneous mutual dependence and mutual support. This is seen when partners sit facing each other and make a see-saw. Partners have to listen to their own body and to their partner's body at the same time. In shared relationships the adult and the child learn to cooperate as equal partners.
Some activities:
- See-sawing
The adult and child sit
facing each other grasping one another's wrists. They take turns lying
back and sitting up, and
particular notice is taken as to whether heads are resting on the
floor when lying back, and
if the child helps to pull the adult up into sitting (Sherborne,
1989)
- Balancing
The adult stands facing
the child, knees flexed and feet apart. He grasps the child's wrists and
the child steps up onto
the adult, one foot on each thigh. The child leans back, as does the
adult. (Sherborne, 1990)
- Double roll
The adult and child lie
on their stomachs facing each other, grasping one another's wrists,
and roll together over the
floor or on a mat.
TO CONCLUDE
Participating in relationship
play can be a joyful way for parents with young visually impaired children
to be stimulated in adopting a sensitive and responsive interaction style.
In "with" relationships
the parents learn to be aware of the need to play a responding role contingent
upon the abilities and interests of the child. They are encouraged to expand
the movement initiations of the child, rather than to direct or control
the child. In "against" relationships parents learn to adapt their body
strength to build up the child' s strength, stability and self-esteem.
In "shared" relationship play the parents are invited to create mutuality
and equally shared experiences.
REFERENCES
Feuerstein R., Rand Y. &
Rijnders J., 1988, Don't accept me as I am. New York: Plenum
Press.
Riksen-Walraeven J.M.A.,
1989, Meten in perspectief. Een levensloopmodel als achtergrond
bij het meten en beïnvloeden
van gedrag en interacties, Tijdschrift voor orthopedagogiek, 28,
16-33.
Sherborne V., 1989, Movement
and the integration of exeptional children, The educational
forum, Vol 54, 1, 105-116.
Sherborne V., 1989, Buidling
relationships through movement, Special Children, April 1989,
p. 7-8.
Sherborne V., 1990, Developmental
movement for children. Cambridge : Cambridge
university press.