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Pura Díaz Veiga graduated in psychology from the faculty of Philosophy and Arts and Education Sciences at the Autonomous University of Madrid (1974-1979). She completed her academic training by following the special subject course in Educational Psychology at the School of Psychology at the Complutense University of Madrid.
Her professional activity began in 1980 as a teacher in the Department of Psychological Diagnosis and Measurement at the Autonomous University of Madrid. She gave classes and performed research work in this department for seven years, during which time her work and publications relating to Social Assistance are of special relevance. At the present time, she continues to teach at a postgraduate level in the courses organized by the Faculty of Psychology at the Autonomous University of Madrid.
Since 1987, she has been psychologist for the Basic Attention Team of the Spanish National Organization for the Blind (ONCE) at its regional headquarters in Castile-Leon, providing psychology services to ONCE members of all ages who are resident in the area covered by the Team.
In the area of education, she provides psychological care (assessment, guidance, treatment, etc.) for children with sight problems who have been referred to her by other members of the Team (social workers, support teachers, etc.). In addition, and whenever the situation so demands, she collaborates with professionals from other institutions in the assessment and psychological treatment of visually impaired children. She is also a regular participant in the different Parents' Classes which are organized in the provinces of the region. She also works with representatives of other institutions in the organization and coordination of training activities directed at professionals in the sphere of education.
Throughout the whole of her
professional activity with the ONCE, she has demonstrated a particular
interest in educational attention and socio-labour guidance for pupils
with other disabilities, and has participated in national and international
training activities besides writing papers on this subject. In 1994, she
was Technical Coordinator for the area of integration into the work-place
at the National Congress for the Provision of Services organized by the
ONCE.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the schooling of blind and visually impaired Spanish pupils has evolved in harmony with that of other pupils with special education needs. The implementation of the Programme for Integration into Schools, developed by the Ministry of Education and Science, has meant that since 1985 a significant step forward has been taken for the progressive incorporation of blind and visually impaired students into mainstream school classrooms.
The Spanish National Organization for the Blind, which is the principal body responsible for the educational care of visually impaired Spaniards, has progressively adjusted its resources and created others in order to bring its services into line with the new perspectives of standardization.
This has meant that today, the majority of visually impaired pupils are receiving schooling in ordinary classrooms. Nevertheless, the fact that such pupils are, generally speaking, now being educated in mainstream schools does not mean that the process of integration has by any means been completed, or that it is not open to improvement. On the other hand, a new concept of schooling is being proposed of late, suggesting prospects which envisage "a school for all" or "all-inclusive education". This focus means another step forward for in-depth recognition of the pupil with special education needs as a natural part of his own life experience.
In this paper, attention is paid to an analysis of the above aspects. A review is made of the recent history of educational integration in Spain, as well as studies which focus on the social situation of blind and visually impaired pupils receiving schooling in mainstream centres, and the implications of such findings in relation to the future of educational integration and the degree of integration achieved thus far are discussed.
EDUCATION IN SPAIN FOR PUPILS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
The educational response to pupils with special needs was initiated in Spain with the General Education Act of 1970, which provided for the education of handicapped and maladjusted pupils together with the rest of the student population. Up until that time, special education had been provided at welfare, hospital or special education centres. The General Education Act allowed pupils with special needs to study in Special Education classrooms within mainstream education centres, on the condition that their personal characteristics permitted them to attend. If, on the other hand, attendance proved impossible, their educational needs were met at special centres. Latterly, the act governing social integration of the handicapped (LISMI), passed in 1982, pressured education departments to develop a policy of integration of handicapped pupils into the mainstream education system and consequently make new arrangements for Special Education. Within the framework established by law, the concretion of the LISMI mandate concerning education led to the passing of Royal Decree 334/1985, which resulted in the process of scholastic integration which has been carried out in Spain over the past ten years.
This Royal Decree establishes a set of guidelines and measures for ensuring that individuals with psychological, physical and sensorial difficulties receive an education which will guarantee them an effective integration into society.
It also introduces a new concept of Special Education as forming an integral part of the education system, which is specified in the related systems of support and adaptation necessary for permitting disabled pupils to exercise their right to an education. From this viewpoint, it is no longer a question of diagnosing handicaps among the student population, but rather one of analysing what kind of assistance such students need in order to progress. Similarly, it is not just a matter of training specialist teachers, but also one of ensuring that they have at their disposal the necessary means for performing their job. This Royal Decree gave rise to the development of the Programme for Integration, which envisaged putting into practice over a period of 8 years a series of initiatives which would extend integration into the mainstream education system.
In 1990, the new Spanish education act (LOGSE) was passed. This Act introduced important changes into the education policy which had been followed up to that point, one major aspect of it being the extension of compulsory education up to the age of 16 years. It also includes the concept of special education requirements as an alternative to the concepts of impaired, disabled or handicapped in the sphere of education.. This takes the emphasis away from the limitations of the individual and places it on the response of the school to the needs of the pupil (Sanz del Rio, 1995).
The implementation of the above legislation has meant significant changes in the Spanish education system over the last ten years. The main consequence has been the development of progressively standardized principles and values and the incorporation of all pupils, irrespective of their needs, into schools. Nevertheless, the results achieved during this decade indicate that standardization is still an aim to be worked for in educational practice. It should be mentioned here that at the XXII Scientific Meeting of AEDES, the different speakers stated unanimously that the process of development towards diversity in schooling has still not been completed. The following are a few of the most important conclusions reached at that Meeting (Sanz del Rio, 1995):
- Social attitudes have evolved favourably over the last ten years, moving away from rejection of integration into mainstream schools to a position of acceptance of schools which provide education for all types of pupils.
- Regarding the acceptance of principles governing standardization, inclusion and a respect for diversity, it has been noted that there is a certain degree of difficulty in putting these into practice within the context of the education system.
- In this sense, it is quite clear that the political administrative process which controls the implementation of educational reform moves at a faster pace than the changes occurring within the schools and in the attitudes of the education community itself.
From this perspective, we must consider the possible impact in Spain of the proposals for inclusive education which were, to a large extent, systematized at the Meeting organized in 1994 in Salamanca by the UNESCO.
In principle, inclusive education means that pupils with and without disabilities study together at all levels of education, developing their capacity to work and deal with daily life within the same institutions and contexts. In inclusive schools, emphasis is centred on how to build a system which is inclusive and structured towards meeting the needs of each and every one of their pupils, not just those who have some kind of disability.
These changes should bring pupils, teachers and parents to the point where they modify their concept of the school, developing a sense of community and mutual support which promotes a successful relationship between all members of the school.
In educational practice, a consideration of the implications of this new focus should take into account the social and educational context in question. In this respect, the consequences of inclusive practice ought not to be considered separately from the effects of the educational integration process which has been carried out during the last decade (Siglo Cero, 1996).
For this reason, the process
of educational integration of visually impaired pupils which has occurred
in our country, as well as the effects which have been observed in participating
subjects, will now be analyzed, and some implications concerning inclusive
education will be outlined.
THE EVOLUTION OF SCHOOLING
FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED PUPILS
In Spain, the schooling of blind and visually impaired pupils has followed along similar lines to that of other children with disabilities.
Up until the 1980's, the majority of blind or visually impaired pupils received schooling in the education centres that the Spanish National Organization for the Blind (ONCE) had in different parts of the country. These centres provided Primary, Secondary and Vocational Training education either on a day school or boarding school basis, depending on where the family home was located. In latter years, this style of education in specific centres has had the added option of educational integration into mainstream centres.
Chart 1 shows the evolution of schooling of Spanish pupils affected by serious sight difficulties during this period.
CHART 1
EVOLUTION OF SCHOOLING FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED PUPILS
MAINSTREAM
CENTRES RESOURCE
CENTRES OTHERS
1983
1985
1986
1996 21.02% 59.52% 19.46%
34.81% 51.85% 13.34%
39.45% 44.57% 15.98%
90.85% 9.14%
As can be seen, in early 1983 the majority of pupils (59.52%) were receiving education in special boarding schools, while a significantly smaller percentage (21.02%) was being educated in mainstream centres. A progressive inversion of this situation has occurred, and during the 1996 academic year, the majority of this type of school-age pupils were receiving education at mainstream centres close to the family home (90.85%), while a minority sector (9.14%) received schooling in specialist centres. The reasons behind the progressive standardization of schooling for visually impaired pupils are varied. In the 1970's, associations of parents of visually impaired children were formed in different parts of the country, their aim being to seek schooling for their children in education centres near the family home.
On the other hand, the Programme for Educational Integration promoted by the Ministry of Education and Science included the possibility of increasing educational options for visually impaired pupils. The ONCE has progressively reorganized its education services in harmony with the new perspectives. Its specialised centres not only continue to operate as Special Education Schools, but have also become Educational Resource Centres for all pupils who attend mainstream education centres in their local area (Circular 12/90 dated 21 June).
In addition, the establishment of Support Teams for Integrated Education has been fostered throughout the whole of Spain. These teams are basically made up of visiting support teachers, social workers, psychologists, specialists in basic rehabilitation and typhlotechnical teachers, besides other professionals who collaborate according to specific educational needs (for example, ophthalmologists, specialists in peripheral nuclei, specialists in sociocultural activities, etc.). In many parts of the country, these Teams include professionals from other institutions who are also relevant in the area of education for pupils with special needs (Ministry of Education and Science, Autonomous Regional Education and Administrative Authorities, etc.). Apart from all the above resources, the ONCE offers a wide range of material and financial assistance which enables the pupils who study in mainstream centres to take advantage of any special requirements their education may demand.
Basically speaking, the primary aim of the activity of these Teams is to attend the educational needs of visually impaired pupils, through assessment of the different community agents involved in the educational process and provision of the specific aids which visual impairment entails.
Although educational care
implies the need for a wide range of qualified Team personnel, depending
on the period of evolution of pupil requirements, it operates around the
function performed by the visiting support teacher on each of his periodic
visits to the education centre. In general terms, the function of the support
teacher not only means individual academic care of pupil, but also involves
assessment of the educational community and its members (all teachers,
the parents, etc.) within which the visually impaired pupil moves. In short,
the schooling of pupils with serious sight difficulties has adapted over
recent years and come into line with the aims for integration and inclusion
being carried out in Spain regarding the schooling of pupils with disabilities.
The Spanish National Organization for the Blind has participated in this
process by means of investment in a variety of wide-ranging resources at
a human and material level, so that visually impaired pupils might be able
to study in the most normal way possible in mainstream education centres
close to their homes.
THE STATUS OF BLIND AND
VISUALLY IMPAIRED PUPILS REGARDING SCHOOL AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION
The study of the impact of school integration for visually impaired children has been the subject of several publications in recent years. The bibliographic review which was carried out revealed that the authors were predominantly interested in aspects relating to the social functioning of pupils. An analysis of the findings now follows.
During the years which followed
the implementation of the Programme of School Integration for blind and
visually impaired pupils, Fernandez Dols and his team undertook research
work for the purpose of investigating different aspects related to the
environment in which educational integration is carried out and to the
pedagogical situation of the pupils. The work involved gathering together
a great deal of information from samples of visually impaired pupils integrated
into mainstream centres over most of Spain. However, the evaluation techniques
employed, the conditions under which they were applied and the data analysis
procedures used are factors to be borne in mind when considering the results
obtained. The results regarding social integration of integrated pupils
are particularly limited. The data obtained from conduct assessment scales
applied to adults is no different from that concerning schoolchildren of
the same age as the visually impaired pupils. However, the authors themselves
suggest the need to compare this information with assessment procedures
which allow for the observation of social interaction in the contexts under
study.
In recent years, several
works which attempt to study these aspects in greater depth have been published.
TABLE 1
STUDIES ON THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED PUPILS
DATE AUTHORS TITLE AIMS
1991 García Pastor
and
García Jiménez
Situación de alumnos con déficits visuales en las clases
integradas To describe the problems of school integration for the blind
and visually impaired from viewpoint of teachers
1994 García Pastor
and
García Jiménez
Teachers' perspectives on the integration of visually impaired children
To analyse the status of school integration for blind and visually impaired
pupils from the viewpoint of classroom and support teachers
1994 Pelechano Barberá,
García Pérez, and Hernández Fumero Actitudes hacia
la integración de invidentes y habilidades interprofesionales To
present integration programmes aiming at the modification of attitudes
towards visually impaired pupils
1995 Díaz-Aguado,
Martínez Arias and Royo García Niños con dificultades
para ver To investigate the psycho-social development of children with
sight difficulties in different educational contexts
1995 Checa Benito and
Ato García Relaciones
socio-afectivas de alumnos ciegos y con baja visión en aulas ordinarias:
estudio socioevolutivo To discover the degree of social integration of
a sample of blind and visually impaired pupils
1996 Salinas Fernández,
Beltrán Llavador, San Martín Alonso and Salinas Fernandez
Condiciones y Actitudes hacia la integración escolar de niños
ciegos y deficientes visuales To analyse attitudes towards the integration
of different participants in the Programme
The social integration of blind and visually impaired pupils
Different research programmes have taken up the topic of the social functioning of visually impaired pupils receiving education in mainstream centres, as well as other factors which play a part in this experience (the kind of support available, attitudes and behaviour of the teacher, tutor, etc.).
One of the most complex research programmes, by virtue of the variables which were taken into account, the evaluation procedures employed and the sample studied, has been that carried out by Diaz-Aguado and his team (1994). In this study, an analysis was made of different variables associated with social interaction in samples of pupils integrated into mainstream centres and samples of pupils receiving schooling in special education centres for the visually impaired. In specific terms, aspects such as social competence, the perception of socio-emotional adaptation, inter-group attitudes between sighted and blind pupils, and the social integration of blind pupils into the group of sighted classmates, were all analysed.
The study findings which are most closely related to the social integration of visually impaired pupils attending non specialist centres are analysed as follows.
In the first place, the results obtained concerning attitudes towards integration indicate that blind or visually impaired pupils who attend mainstream education centres are more in favour of school integration than pupils who attend special centres. Factors such as the tendency of the children to prefer the context in which they live, the influence exerted by the attitudes of parents and teachers, and the effectiveness of integration in the development of tolerance towards diversity, have been identified by the authors to explain these results.
The response demonstrated by adolescents reveals a slightly different pattern of results. The differences in attitude towards integration are not significantly different regarding non-integrated pupils but, however, the experience of integration appears to be associated with a greater readiness to work with sighted companions.
The results concerning social competence suggest that the sensorial deprivation that blindness implies does not appear to affect the cognitive aspect of social competence to any significant degree. In other words, both sighted and visually impaired pupils use similar strategies for interacting with their companions. However, this does not occur when an analysis of social interaction between blind and sighted pupils is made. Statistically important differences have been detected between both groups. In specific terms, the interaction of blind pupils in comparison with their sighted classmates is characterized by 1) frequently being ignored by them, 2) acceptance of the few requests and proposals that are put to them, and 3) they issue more requests for information and help than they receive.
An analysis of the social situation of blind pupils attending mainstream centres (N=40) revealed that a high percentage (60%) of such pupils demonstrates a certain degree of integration among their sighted classmates.
The analysis of information which considers the age factor reveals that as the pupil gets older, the percentage of those demonstrating a certain degree of integration with their classmates increases, the percentage of pupils who are rejected increases, and the percentage of isolated pupils decreases. This seems to confirm the observation that rejection in infancy is associated with difficulties in academic adaptation, while during adolescence it is associated with a low level of development of socio-emotional competence.
When an analysis focusing on the degree of visual impairment is performed, it is proved that there is a higher percentage of well integrated children in the blind group than in the group where residual vision exists.
The situation of the visually impaired pupil in integrated classrooms has also been studied by other authors. Checa and Ato (1995) found similar patterns of results to those reported by Diaz-Aguado (et al.). Their study aimed at discovering the way in which the blind child perceives his classmates (and vice versa) in a sample of students at different levels of education (N=32). This study, which used the sociogram for the assessment procedure, pointed out that although blind children are not so frequently chosen to perform tasks as their sighted companions, this is also true in a games situation, and they are not rejected for inclusion in games or for performing tasks. In the same way as the study mentioned earlier, this work recorded a greater degree of social integration among blind children in the indicators under study than that found among children with residual vision.
García Pastor and García Jiménez (1991), who also used sociometric analysis, point out in addition that in the sample studied (N=7), the socio-emotional status of the pupil (popular, rejected, ignored or problematic) varies in relation to the situation of interplay, regardless of whether this is in a working or a games context.
In short, the information regarding the social integration of blind pupils into ordinary classrooms reveals that pupils who study in mainstream centres demonstrate positive attitudes towards school integration and handle strategies for creating relationships with their classmates. However, visually impaired pupils demonstrate a greater capacity for taking the initiative in contacting with their classmates than their classmates demonstrate towards them. Lastly, the social situation of visually impaired pupils appears to go in favour of those who are blind and is in direct relation to the type of interaction they are involved in (games or classroom tasks) with their classmates.
Variables associated with social integration
Several studies have concentrated on the identification of different questions concerning milieu which are associated with the social integration of integrated pupils.
García Pastor and García Jiménez have pointed out in different studies (1991, 1994) the role that both classroom and support teachers play in the integration of pupils with serious sight difficulties.
Using the procedure of in situ classroom participation, they observed the relationship between visually impaired pupils and their teachers. This procedure afforded them the opportunity to obtain information on a series of significant variables from the perspective of educational integration: the type of support, conflictive situations, difficult situations and emotional response.
The joint analysis of the sociometric analysis (commented on earlier) and of their observations allows them to deduce the existence of a relationship between the socio-emotional status of the pupil, his status in the classroom and the feelings he experiences. In this respect, the type of support given to the pupil (both inside and outside the classroom) appears to be associated with his socio-emotional situation. When the pupil works with the visiting teacher within the classroom, there are always some problematic pupils (those who cause a high degree of social impact) or some rejected pupils. On the other hand, if the pupil works with the visiting teacher outside the classroom, he enjoys a high degree of social acceptance (popularity) amongst his classmates. This relationship between the situation of the pupil and his socio-emotional status is maintained both in work and in games preferences.
The same authors have continued to investigate, from a qualitative and ethnographic viewpoint, the perspectives of teachers regarding the integration of pupils with serious sight difficulties (Garcia Pastor and Garcia Jimenez, 1994). Their findings show that classroom teachers are faced with difficult educational situations which they associate with the presence of an integrated pupil in their classroom, and they translate such difficulties in terms of problems in giving lessons and as a conflictive perception of integration. The support teachers, however, consider themselves to be specialist teachers for visually impaired children. This idea implies an individual relationship with the child to the detriment of the class as a whole or the school itself.
Salinas (et al.) recently (1996) made an attempt to learn more of the opinions and attitudes of different participants in the programme for integration of the visually impaired which is being implemented in the provinces of Valencia and Castellon. The findings published by these authors help to extend the findings of earlier studies. The classroom teachers participating in the study (N=42) reveal the predominant opinion that the incorporation of visually impaired pupils into their classrooms forces them to resolve situations which cannot be considered as normal, bearing in mind that they have to give more of their time to such pupils than to the rest of the class. In other words, "the teacher has to multiply his teaching efforts because these are no longer directed at a uniform and undifferentiated group, but at two groups: one is the uniform group, and the other corresponds to the child who is being schooled through the integration procedure."
On the other hand, teachers report heterogeneous behaviour styles regarding the social self-sufficiency of visually impaired pupils. In some instances, it has been established that the behaviour of the teacher inhibits the autonomy of visually impaired pupils and also provides an unsuitable model for the relationships they establish with the rest of their classmates. As regards the perception that classroom teachers have of visiting teachers, a large proportion of the teachers questioned state that the teaching of visually impaired pupils "would cause them extreme difficulty" if they were unable to count on the assistance of specialist teachers. In this respect, the majority consider their assessment to be a useful tool when planning their classes, although over fifty per cent would prefer the support teacher to assist the visually impaired child outside the classroom context.
In short, the review which
has been carried out makes it clear that researchers have focused their
attention on an analysis of the role that both classroom and support teachers
play as agents in the process of school integration. Generally speaking,
classroom teachers view the incorporation of a pupil as a difficult situation
which implies greater dedication in terms of time and also an updating
in terms of training if they are to maximise the personal and social independence
of the integrated pupil. The support teacher is considered by the classroom
teacher to be a specialist in visual defects, who can assist in the organization
of schooling for integrated pupils. However, the research projects which
have been analysed all point to the preference of classroom teachers for
support teaching to be given to the visually impaired pupil outside the
context of the classroom. Work carried out with the pupil outside the classroom
situation appears to be associated with an improved socio-emotional situation
in the relationship between the pupil and his classmates.
FUTURE PROSPECTS. THE IMPLICATIONS
OF INCLUSION
Although the results which are outlined above must be viewed with caution since they emerge from a limited number of research projects, they point to certain effects being experienced in the programme of school integration for blind and visually impaired pupils in Spain. In other words, pupils studying in mainstream education centres are satisfied with the process, consider themselves to be integrated within their group, and are accepted by their classmates in all the activities which the educational environment implies.
However, some of the findings point towards the need to introduce changes in the context in which educational integration occurs. For example, the existence of a certain degree of isolation of visually impaired pupils and their tendency to establish irregular relationships and assume an inferior status among their sighted companions, have all been recorded. Deriving from this is the need to provide opportunities which encourage the development of social competence through practice (Diaz-Agudo, et al., 1995). Initiatives such as the Programmes for interpersonal abilities developed by Pelechano et al. (1994) can provide useful alternatives in this respect.
It is important to underline the role of classroom and support teachers as suitable models for guidelines to be followed in social interplay between blind and sighted pupils. On the other hand, the findings concerning the way in which classroom teachers regard support teachers suggest the need to continue analysing the impact that external agent (support teacher) participation has on the social environment of the classroom, in order to establish the mechanisms which provide the greatest possible degree of assistance in the integration of the group as a whole.
All these proposals are relevant from the point of view of inclusion. For this reason, the implications for intervention which emerge from this work draw special attention to the design of contexts which facilitate the learning of effective social interaction by all pupils, with or without vision, taking into account the needs and characteristics of each and every one of them.
In addition, although the support services are considered by support teachers to be both useful and necessary, it would seem imperative to identify procedures so that teaching or technical specialist modifications may be provided efficiently in the general classroom.
In short, the integration of visually impaired children into schools has allowed positive effects to be achieved among the pupils themselves and also in the Spanish education community. The proposals leading to an inclusive school should not be considered without taking into account these effects, as well as the problems and solutions which have arisen in recent years, concerning the integration of these pupils as well as others with special education needs. Matters such as coordination of resources both inside and outside the school, the maintaining of the continuous assessment process, or the assigning of resources which suit the characteristics of the pupils, are all measures which would assist the maintenance and progress rate of integration for pupils with disabilities which is part of the construction fabric of one school for all children. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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