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Students with visual impairments and their parents recognize the need for career planning. Parents influence the development of their children in many ways, yet their role in career planning activities is not well defined. This paper discusses a study in which parents and adolescents with visual impairments completed a series of exercises together to examine career-related issues such as adolescent self-awareness, career decisions and career plans. The model included occupational resource information about adaptations and job modifications used by individuals with visual impairments employed in a wide variety of occupations. The study sought to determine the effects of this parent-guided program on adolescent career decisions and plans, communication between parent and adolescent, and the importance of work role for adolescents with visual impairments.
Parents, Family, and Career
Development
The perceptions and expectations
that many people hold about blindness can have a significant negative effect
on personal and social development (Scott, 1969). Tuttle (1984) linked
the development of self-concept and self-esteem in blind and visually impaired
individuals to expectations of significant others and to the quality of
interactions within the social and physical environment. There is a tendency
for parents of blind children to expect less or expect differences which
may lead to lesser accomplishments and slower development of the child
(Warren 1984). Overprotection, overassistance, denial , and negative parent
attitudes may inhibit a visually impaired child's development of initiative,
independence , and realization of individual abilities (Warnke, 1993; Tuttle,
1984; McBroom, Tedder, & Kang-Ji, 1992).
Adolescents' self-esteem
and ability to make decisions are related directly to the quality of parent-adolescent
communication (Anderson, 1992; Demo, Small, & Savin-Williams, 1987;
Grotevant & Cooper, 1983). Parental aspirations and expectations are
reported to profoundly affect career choice behaviour in both disabled
and non-disabled young people (Anderson, Mawby, Miller, & Olson, 1965;
Chubon, 1985; McBroom et al, 1992). Children and adolescents consult their
parents most frequently for advice on career choices (Katz, Miller-Tiedeman,
Osipow, & Tiedeman, 1977; Birk & Blimline, 1984). High school students
have cited their parents as offering more assistance in career planning
than teachers, counsellors or peers (Davies & Kandel, 1981; Noeth,
Engen, & Noeth, 1984; Dowdy, Carter, & Smith, 1990).
Parents and Professionals
Parents are influential
in the career development process, and they often wish to be included,
yet, a specific role for parents is often not defined (McNair & Rusch,
1987). They are asked to participate in individual education planning and
transition planning meetings. Parents are clearly concerned about future
careers for their children and how they can best contribute. Their in-depth
knowledge of their child is a valuable and essential resource for education
and rehabilitation professionals. Effective collaboration includes parents
as colleagues in consultative processes which recognize the unique information
that parents have about their child as well as their far greater emotional
investment. The career development needs of students with visual impairments
can be accommodated most effectively when students and parents as well
as education and rehabilitation professions have a well-defined role in
the transition process.
Method
The procedure used was to
provide two separate groups of student-parent pairs with an identical set
of career planning activities and occupational information related to blindness
and visual impairment.
The set of activities which
was provided to all participants consisted of The Partner's Program (Cochran,
1985), with additional information specific to visual impairment. This
program was designed to focus on the exploration stage of career development
with the developmental tasks of crystallization, specification , and implementation
of an initial career choice. The program consisted of four manuals: a parent
guidance manual; an activity exploration workbook; a career decisions framework;
and a planning manual. The parent manual advised parents on their role
and encouraged an active partnership based on warmth, reciprocity, and
a mutual balance of power. The activity exploration workbook required identification
of preferred activities, an analysis of interests, values, and strengths
which were synthesized into themes. These themes were used in the career
decision framework to assess values, choices, and career decisions. Participants
were expected to evaluate occupational preferences, and compare choices
carefully, which resulted in one or more career choices. The planning manual
emphasized considerations such as educational planning, training options,
contingency planning, flexibility, and fallback options for one or more
potential careers.
This program model has been
proven effective in three separate studies with sighted high school students
as a positive way for students and parents to gain important information
about a career choices, to examine career options, and stimulate preparation
and plans for initial career entry (Palmer & Cochran, 1988; Pierson,
1989; Kush & Cochran, 1993). The study sought to examine use of the
model with students who were blind or visually impaired. Specific topics
under investigation were:
1. career planning and decision
making;
2. communication between
adolescents and their parents;
3. adolescents' perception
of work roles; and
4. perceptions of adolescents
and parents about the program model and reference materials.
Measures
Dependent variables chosen
as indicators were: career certainty and career indecision, as measured
by the Career Decision Scale (Osipow, Carney, Winer, Yanica, & Koschier,
1976); adolescent and parent communication as measured by the Parent-Adolescent
Communication Scale (Barnes & Olsen, 1985); the importance of work
role as measured by the Career Salience Scale (Greenhaus, 1971, 1977).
The Career Decision Scale (CDS) consisted of 19 statements, each representing
difficulty in making an educational or vocational choice. The scale is
recognized as a valid, reliable measure of career indecision which has
been shown to be capable of measuring changes over time (Slaney, 1985).
The Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PAC) was made up of 20 statements
which describe adolescent and parent perceptions and their experience of
communication with each other. The scale has been used with high school
students and been found to be a valid, reliable measure of positive and
negative qualities of parent-adolescent communication (Walker & Greene,
1986). The Career Salience Scale (CSS) was chosen to investigate, attitudes
toward work, vocational planning, and the relative importance of work (Greenhaus,
1971, 1977). It has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of the
importance of work role in an individual's life which has been related
to career choice behaviors (Jones & Chenery, 1980). Interviews with
all participants were conducted following completion of the program to
provide details of student and parent perceptions of the program, activities,
and outcomes.
Procedure
All program reference and
study materials were transcribed into an accessible format (large print,
audio tape , and braille) for students who were blind or visually impaired.
A pilot of these program materials was conducted with one male grade-12
student who used braille and his father. The principal outcome of the pilot
study was the decision to include two reference resource books. The Canadian
National Institute for the Blind Survey of Occupations (Campbell, 1985)
and Career Choices for the Visually Impaired (Eddy, 1984) were included
with Partner's Program materials to provide parents and students with a
wide variety of job descriptions and specific information about job requirements,
technological adaptations, and job accommodations used by individuals with
visual impairments who are employed in many fields.
Subjects. Subjects for the
study were solicited through a survey of itinerant vision teachers and
student services directors in 39 school districts in British Columbia (BC),
coordinators of service programs for the BC-Yukon Division of the Canadian
National Institute for the Blind (CNIB), and an ad in the Parent Association
for Students with Visual Impairments (AVIS) newsletter. The section criteria
for participating students were: ability to read at the grade-eight level;
at least five years' duration of blindness or visual impairment; and enrollment
in grade 10-12 in the BC school system. Twenty-eight students and parents
expressed interest. When the study was initiated, there were 20 student
and parent participants. Reasons for non-participation of eight families
included not meeting selection criteria, moving, not having sufficient
time, or death in the family. The student sample is described in Table
1. Table 2 describes salient parent and family characteristics.
Study Design. The design
employed was a time-lagged crossover control design for equivalent groups
(Campbell & Stanley, 1963), illustrated as follows:
Group A R O1 X O2 O3
Group B R O4 O5 X O6
R = Random assignment O
= Testing Occasion X = Program Table 1
Description of Student Sample
GROUP A
Age Grade Age of Identification
of Visual Impairment Reading Medium Visual Condition
1 18 12 5 Print Optic Atrophy
2 16 10 9 Print Stargardt's
Maculopathy
3 18 11 1 Print/Tape Optic
Atrophy/Nystagmus
4 15 9/10 1 Print Optic
Hypoplasia
5 17 9/10 13 Print Aphasia
6 18 12 Birth Print Albinism
7 16 11 Birth Tape Optic
Nerve Glioma
8 16 11 Birth Print/Tape
Toxo Plasmosis
9 16 10 Birth Print Optic
Nerve Dysplasia
10 15 10 Birth Print Myopia/Nystagmus
GROUP B
Age Grade Age of Identification
of Visual Impairment Reading Medium Visual Condition
1 17 12 Birth Print Retinopathy
of Prematurity
2 17 10 4 Print Retinitis
Pigmentosa
3 18 12 2 Print Optic Atrophy
4 17 11 2 Print Myopia/Nystagmus
5 18 11 8 Print Kerataconus
6 16 10 Birth Print Leber's
Congenital Amblyosis
7 16 10 Birth Print Congenital
Stationary Night Blindness
8 16 11 Birth Braille/Tape
Retrolental Fibroplasia
9 17 11 7 Print Stargardt's
Maculopathy
10 16 10 Birth Print Aniridia
*Each group contained 5 males
and 5 females.
Table 2
Description of Parent Sample
GROUP A
1 or 2 parents in the home
Parent participant
Mother's education
Father's education Educational
Expectations
for child Occupational expectations
for child Parents raised
in Canada Ethnic
com-munity
1
2 M High school graduate
High school graduate Community college Skilled technology N N
2
2 M High school graduate
High school graduate University degree Profession Y Y
3
1 M High school graduate
High school diploma Semi
skilled Y N
4
2 M High school High school
graduate Community college Skilled technology Y Y
5
2 M High school graduate
University post-graduate University degree Profession N N
6
2 M High school Elem. school
graduate Community college Skilled technology Y N
7
2 F Elem. school graduate
University graduate University degree Profession N N
8
2 M High school graduate
High school graduate High school diploma Skilled/ technology Y N
9
2 M Elem. school graduate
High school graduate High school diploma Semi skilled/ technology Y N
10
2 F High school graduate
High school graduate Community college Skilled technology Y N
Table 2
Description of Parent Sample
GROUP B
1 or 2 parents in the home
Parent participant
Mother's education
Father's education Educational
Expectations
for child Occupational expectations
for child Parents raised
in Canada Ethnic com-munity
1
2 M Community college University
graduate Community college/
university degree Skilled
technology/ profession Y N
2
1 M University graduate
University post-graduate Profession Y N
3
2 M Community college High
school University post-graduate Profession N N
4
2 F University graduate
University graduate University post-graduate Profession N Y
5
2 M University graduate
High school graduate High school graduate Skilled technology N N
6
2 F High school graduate
High school graduate College/
university degree Profession N N
7
1 M University post-graduate
Community college Semi-skilled N N
8
2 M University graduate
High school graduate University degree Skilled/ techology Y N
9
2 F High school graduate
Community college degree
University degree Profession Y N
10
2 F Elem. school graduate
High school graduate High
school diploma Semi-skilled Y N
All students and parents
were pretested on the dependent variables. With a small number of students
it was important that not all subjects who rated highly on career certainty
or indecision be in one group, therefore, a blocking procedure was used
based upon Career Decision Scale (CDS) pretest scores. Students were ranked
according to pretest scores on the CDS and then randomly assigned to groups
which were counterbalanced for gender.
Group A received the program
and reference materials for a five-week period while Group B served as
a control. All subjects in both groups were tested. Group B was then provided
with program and reference materials for a five-week period, and Group
A served as a control or follow-up group. All participants were tested
again. Testing sessions were completed by itinerant teachers and CNIB counsellors
who followed set procedures.
Study Participants
There were 10 male and 10
female student participants. Ten of the participants had visual impairments
which were diagnosed at birth. Four subjects had an additional disability
in addition to visual impairment. Of the twenty families who participated,
three were single parent families. Three subjects were the only child in
the family. Of the 20 student subjects, 19 received the services of an
itinerant teacher of the visually impaired; 6 had the services of educational
aides; 18 were full-time students in a regular high school program; and
1 student attended a resource classroom. The students came from 18 different
school districts in BC.
Fourteen mothers and six
fathers participated with either son or daughter. All but one of the parents
were high school graduates; in eight of the families, one parent had a
university degree. One third of the parents had not been born in Canada.
Interviews with all participants
determined whether or not they had completed the workbooks. All parents
reported they had completed the guidance manual, activity exploration workbooks,
and career decision framework. Four parents indicated they had not fully
completed the planning workbook. Twelve parents recorded from 8 to 21 hours
in their logs. Other parents did not keep a sufficiently accurate record
to report time spent on the program.
One student-parent pair
dropped out midway through the study. This mother indicated that she had
just discovered that her daughter had bulimia, an eating disorder, and
treatment and counseling for this condition would take precedence over
continuation with the program.
Statistical Analysis
Overall effects of the program
were analyzed initially by analysis of the variation in scores on career
certainty, career indecision, parent communication, adolescent communication,
and career salience. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was computed
on these variables at three points in time: pretest before completion of
the program by either group; posttest 1 after completion of the program
by Group A but not Group B; and posttest 2 after completion of the program
by Group A and Group B. The one case of missing data due to illness had
final data values estimated using the BMDPPAM regression program. The career
indecisions subscale was the only scale in which a decline in scores represented
improvement, therefore, reverse scale scores were used in computing the
MANOVA.
Audiotaped semi-structured
telephone interviews were transcribed, and texts of interviews were analyzed
using the Ethnograph (1988), a computer-based text analysis program. Parent
and student comments about the process and outcomes of the program were
coded, collated, and analyzed.
Results
Results of MANOVA between
groups at posttest 1 was computed to examine the combined effects on the
five dependent variables after completion of the program by Group A. Results
are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Multivariate Comparisons
Between the Treatment (Group A)
and Control (Group B) Using
Five Measures
Source (Measures)
DF F Probability
______________________________________________________________________________
Pretest 5,5 2.67 .15 (O1
vs. O4)
Posttest 1 5,5 3.38 .10*
(O2 vs. O5)
Posttest 2 5,5 .55 .73 (O3
vs. O6)
MANOVA within groups was
computed on the five independent variables at posttest 2 to determine the
combined affects after completion of the program by Group B. Results are
presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Multivariate Comparison
Between Pretests and Posttests
For Group A and Group B
Source (Measurement)
DF F Probability
Posttest 1 5,5 .79 .59 (O1
vs. O2)
Posttest 2 5,5 .72 .63 (O2
vs. O3)
Posttest 1 5,5 .49 .76 (O4
vs. O5)
Posttest 2 5,5 8.77 .02*
(O5 vs. O6)
The combined effect of the
program was statistically significant for Group B. Treatment effect scores
for individual variable were calculated based on test scores for each dependent
variable before and after introduction of the program. Effect sizes give
an indication of the magnitude of treatment gains measured in standard
deviation units. The effect sizes are presented graphically in Figures
1, 2, 3, and 4.
Effect Sizes for Career Certainty
Group Mean (Pre)
(SD) Mean (Post 1)
(SD) Mean (Post 2)
(SD) Pooled S.D.
(Pre)
Effect Size
A: 4.10
(2.07) 5.70
(1.63) 5.70
(1.76) 2.06 0.77
B: 4.40
(2.06) 4.50
(2.32) 5.90
(1.37) 2.06 0.68
Effect Sizes for Career Indecision
Group Mean (Pre)
(SD) Mean (Post 1)
(SD) Mean (Post 2)
(SD) Pooled S.D.
(Pre)
Effect Size
A: 33.10
(8.50) 31.30
(8.30) 28.10
(6.40) 8.65 -0.21
B: 30.10
(8.81) 28.50
(8.05) 26.10
(5.42) 8.65 -0.28
Effect Sizes for Adolescent Communication
Group Mean (Pre)
(SD) Mean (Post 1)
(SD) Mean (Post 2)
(SD) Pooled S.D.
(Pre)
Effect Size
A: 79.60
(11.84) 78.40
(12.36) 79.30
(15.49) 12.7 -0.09
B: 71.10
(13.56) 66.10
(14.31) 72.10
(13.16) 12.7 -0.47
Effect Sizes for Career Salience
Group Mean (Pre)
(SD) Mean (Post 1)
(SD) Mean (Post 2)
(SD) Pooled S.D.
(Pre)
Effect Size
A: 21.90
(4.01) 22.40
(2.87) 21.70
(4.00) 2.86 +0.17
B: 20.60
(1.71) 20.60
(2.91) 22.20
(2.14) 2.86 +0.56
The overall effect between Groups A and B at posttest 2 after completion of the program by Group A (F(5,5) = 3.38 P<.10) was attributed to gains in scores on career certainty and career salience, and a decline in career indecision scores. The overall statistically significant effect after completion of the program by Group B (F(5,5) = 8.77P<.02) was attributed to an increase in career certainty, career salience, and adolescent communication scores and a decline in career indecision scores.
Interview Themes
Partnership Process
The partnership process
began with parents in both groups reading self-exploration activities aloud
to motivate their son or daughter. The adolescents directed and controlled
initial discussions. Parents and adolescents tended to have different views
of their roles and perspectives in this process.
Parents saw their role as
good listeners who encouraged honest expression of their son's or daughter's
views and opinions. Parents felt they assisted with thinking about hurdles,
alternative courses or action, and educational choices. One parent described
this process as assisting her daughter recognize that there were no right
or wrong views but, rather, differences of view or opinion which every
individual is entitled to hold.
Adolescents felt their parents
helped with decision-making and shared their opinions. They felt their
parents allowed them freedom to direct discussions and decisions as well
as make final choices.
Parents observed that the
adolescents relaxed and reduced attempts to control and direct discussion
over the five-week period. Parents attributed this change in their son's
or daughter's behavior to recognition that their parent understood their
point of view. Adolescents generally held the view that they had finally
convinced their parents to acknowledge and accept their choices.
The time spent together
in discussion about career options was viewed as beneficial by both students
and parents. The process involved agreement and disagreement with reciprocal
discussions which had a positive tone.
Student Attitudes
Parents reported that student
attitudes became more positive with confirmation of more definite career
directions and plans. Those students who had already decided upon a career
direction were expected to examine alternative choices. Program activities
required examination of choices, hard decisions about values and careers,
as well as a commitment plan to pursue a choice.
When parents mentioned the
effects of visual disabilities upon choices they saw benefits for their
sons' and daughters' recognition that there were many careers to consider,
with options other than a first choice if the first choice did not work
out. Students were forced to broaden their perspectives, and several mentioned
they became more comfortable about changing their minds. In one instance,
the process prompted re-examination of school course work; in another,
specialization in one area of interest was broadened to accommodate a possible
future change in career direction.
Resource/Reference Materials
The career catalog and CNIB
survey of occupations were described as useful in broadening the range
of options and in consideration of how a visual impairment might affect
a particular choice. Disability-specific information about tools, technology,
and approaches to job modification were helpful. Parents found the number
and diversity of occupations listed encouraging; they stated that many
occupations were listed which might normally be considered impossible due
to visual limitations.
Adolescents also commented
on the usefulness of both the range of occupations and the educational
requirements listed for each occupation. Students found the larger CNIB
survey more helpful, although the numbered index system in Canadian Classification
and Dictionary of Occupations was found to be complex for some.
Parents View of Model
Parents indicated that the
process of the model tended to encourage and confirm adolescent career
choices or direction and increase parent understanding. They noted improvements
in adolescent self-understanding, self-confidence, motivation, preparation,
and planning in relation to career decisions. Parents found the program
provided a structured, less haphazard approach to discussions of career
objectives and aspirations. The model activities caused them to devote
more time to the topic in their frequently busy schedules, although several
mentioned that the five-week time period was stressful.
Parents stated that activities
narrowed or solidified a student's perspective which, in turn, encouraged
future independence and discovery, no matter which career a student might
choose. Examples of these views were more student confidence in making
career decisions, a more positive viewpoint, and more determination to
plan. Parents also found many similarities of student interests and values
across the choices made and a recognition of the importance of education
in any choice. In once instance, parents noted renewed attempts to complete
high school credits.
Parents felt that their
daughter or son would consult them more readily about career decisions,
and they noticed that the program had encouraged career discussion with
peers. In one situation, a parent commented that involvement with the program
had improved the working relationship with an itinerant vision teacher.
Several parents commented
that their son or daughter had difficulty discerning the difference between
an interest and a value.
The self-paced, structured
form of the program without involvement or pressure from others was mentioned
as helpful. In one instance where a high school principal had applied pressure,
the parent did not view this intrusion as helpful to the student or the
process.
From a parent's point of
view, those adolescents who benefitted most were students in grade 10 or
11 who had some ideas about career options but had not examined those options
thoroughly. Those students who benefitted the least were those who were
quite certain which career to pursue and tended to confirm their choices
with some consideration of alternative careers.
Program Outcomes
Career Choices and Visual
Limitations
The combination of the program
activities and reference materials seemed to clarify for students the kinds
of limits imposed by their visual disabilities. Several found that their
vision was not adequate for particular occupations in terms of mobility
(driver's licence), reading speed, and computer graphics. These students
sought comparable careers in a similar field which related to their interests
and values. Students commented that they gained a better idea of the variety
of choices, and they learned about jobs that either they never knew existed
or never would have considered. The reference information and career exploration
activities opened up new possibilities and showed them how to find more
information about specific jobs. Students of both groups said they would
recommend the program to peers as a valuable career exploration exercise.
Two participants did, in fact, lend program materials to parents of students
in grade 10 and 11 who were undecided about a career direction prior to
final grade 11 course selection.
Confirmation of Choice/Direction
Confirmation of choice or
definite direction was the most frequently mentioned outcome, with seven
students in the first group and all students in the second group making
this assertion. Students said that the program helped them get a better
idea of which options to pursue, which jobs they seemed better suited for,
and what to do in order to pursue their choice. These adolescents stated
they were more certain about a choice, had looked at what they could do,
and had realized "This is what I can do specifically, I fit well into this
category". They learned how their interests were linked with abilities
and choices as well as the fact that some talents are applicable to other
careers rather than only their first choice. Students said they better
recognized why some careers appealed more to them than others, and that
choices need not be made quickly. Several students mentioned the likelihood
that their career direction might change, which emphasized the advisability
of considering more than one choice. Adolescents commented that they liked
the fact that there were no YES/NO answers to questions, but, rather, decisions
were based upon their own interests. The career grid required them to rank
their choices for their own reasons. They found the comparison of values
to careers made them seek more information about specific occupations.
This information gave them more self-confidence and information about which
education majors to pursue. The two students in each group who showed the
most improvement in career decision making and planning were those who
had several options in mind but were undecided about choices and how to
evaluate them. The two students in each group who showed the least improvement
were students who had already chosen a career option prior to beginning
the program. These students already had several ideas of how to pursue
their choices.
Career Planning and Work
Role
The importance of work role
was confirmed by half of the first group and 9 out of 10 students in the
second group prior to beginning the program. Upon completion of the program,
students in the second group made the strongest statements about the importance
of their careers, with 5 of these students stating that the program activities
and reference materials confirmed the importance of work roles for them.
Some students commented on an increased awareness of: planning for future
education programs; planning for career entry; meeting educational requirements;
making course selections; and success with undergraduate programs. Students
in both groups emphasized that career planning activities were very important
to them.
Parent Understanding
Parents of adolescent participants
indicated they gained a better understanding of career decisions and more
information about their child's interests, values, and goals. Some parents
were surprised to find themselves mistaken about student interests or the
ranking of career choices. They learned how strongly their child held certain
values which led to particular choices. Some parents commented on how high
their son or daughter had set his/her career goals, how thoughtful adolescents
were about their futures and how far ahead they had planned.
Parents found it helpful
to watch their child work through the activities and resource books and
express their thoughts and opinions. This exercise emphasized for one father
how important it was for him to be sensitive to his son's feelings and
values. Parents came to the realization of how strongly they had advocated
their own values, only to discover that their son or daughter had quite
different values. Students confirmed their parents gained more knowledge
about them.
Some parents of adolescents
who had firm choices found it difficult to get their son or daughter to
consider new options. They were surprised at the determination with which
some choices were held and thought it important to consider alternatives.
One such parent referred his son for further counselling in an attempt
to broaden his perspective and to clarify realistic career goals.
Limitations
Students and parents who
participated in this study were volunteers who were willing to work together.
Their motivation was high, and both parents and students made a commitment
of time and effort to complete program activities. The sample did not include
individuals with multiple disabilities. The relatively small sample size
limited the statistical analysis. Results as presented need to be considered
in light of the sample size and composition.
Implications
The Partner's Program model
combined with occupational information on a diverse array of careers held
by blind and visually impaired people provided a useful framework for parents
and students to explore career options. It required careful examination
of more than one choice from a personal perspective. This requirement challenges
singular, stereotyped, unrealistic choices commonly made by adolescents
with visual impairments who have not carefully examined several options
in light of their own strengths and values. Students and parents examined
these factors together and considered plans to work towards these options.
Studies of career development
needs of students with visual impairments have identified a need for study
of occupational preparation requirements, more thorough career planning,
more information about specific careers, and a broader choice of careers
with improved perspectives on disability. The literature also suggests
that adolescents with career plans have a greater sense of self worth and
more positive expectations than those without plans. The model addresses
many of these needs.
Parents were provided with
a well-defined role in the process which allowed them to initiate and participate
in career awareness and exploration with their son or daughter. This activity
took place in their own homes at times that were possible and convenient
for parents. Parents and families have been identified as important initiators
of career goals and plans. This program model served as a useful approach
to gathering career information for parents as well as guidance counsellors
and career counsellors working for rehabilitation agencies such as the
Canadian National Institute for the Blind. The type of information provided
to students and parents in reference materials such as the CNIB survey
of occupations explained some adaptations, tools, and techniques to overcome
the effects of blindness which have been identified as common barriers
to consideration of careers for individuals with visual impairments.
The outcomes of this study
suggest that a structured career exploration program which includes parents
is a viable method to consider as a part of transition planning for students
with visual impairments. The information obtained provides an ideal basis
for exploration, collaboration, and discussion with career counsellors
and rehabilitation professionals. Parent involvement does not replace specialized
placement and counselling services, but inclusion of parents provides a
foundation for a fully collaborative relationship with those who have significant
roles in the career development process. Investigations which include parents
over longer periods of time may provide more information about the optimum
times for parental involvement and clarify their role in exploratory employment
experiences for adolescents with visual impairments.
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